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Fuel Effects on Operability of Aircraft Gas Turbine Combustors.

By: Contributor(s): Material type: TextTextSeries: Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics SeriesPublisher: Reston, VA : American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics, 2021Copyright date: ©2021Edition: 1st edDescription: 1 online resource (650 pages)Content type:
  • text
Media type:
  • computer
Carrier type:
  • online resource
ISBN:
  • 9781624106040
Subject(s): Genre/Form: Additional physical formats: Print version:: Fuel Effects on Operability of Aircraft Gas Turbine CombustorsDDC classification:
  • 662.66
LOC classification:
  • TL709.5.C55
Online resources:
Contents:
Cover -- Table of Contents -- Preface -- Chapter I: Introduction -- I. BACKGROUND -- A. MOTIVATION FOR FUEL STUDIES -- B. JET FUEL AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATION -- 1. ENGINE AND AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATION -- 2. AVIATION FUEL AIRWORTHINESS APPROVAL -- 3. JET FUEL SPECIFICATIONS -- C. BACKGROUND: ALTERNATIVE FUELS -- D. ALTERNATIVE JET FUEL EVALUATION -- II. COST-EFFECTIVE APPROACH TO THE AJF EVALUATION PROCESS -- III. FOM, TEST TARGETS, AND CONDITIONS -- A. LEAN BLOWOUT -- B. IGNITION: COLD START AND ALTITUDE RELIGHT -- C. FUEL EFFECTS ON GEOMETRIC AND THERMODYNAMIC CONDITIONS -- 1. DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF COMBUSTOR DESIGNS -- 2. THERMODYNAMIC CONDITIONS -- IV. STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter II: Historical Perspective on Fuel Effects -- I. BACKGROUND -- II. FUEL EFFECTS ON COMBUSTION: 1970S-1980S ALTERNATIVE FUEL PROGRAMS -- A. FUEL PROPERTY EFFECTS ON COMBUSTION: GENERAL RELATIONSHIPS FOUND IN THE 1970S AND 1980S -- 1. EMISSIONS: SMOKE AND SOOT -- 2. GASEOUS EMISSIONS -- 3. TEMPERATURE FIELD -- 4. OPERABILITY -- B. ENGINE OEM HARDWARE AND CONDITIONS USED FOR 1970S AND 1980S RESEARCH -- C. SUMMARY OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FUEL PROPERTIES AND COMBUSTION FROM THE EARLY RESEARCH -- III. THE JP-4-TO-JP-8 CONVERSION -- IV. SYNTHETIC FUELS COMPARED TO CONTEMPORARY JET A, JET A-1, AND JP-8 KEROSENE -- A. CHANGE IN R&amp -- D PHILOSOPHY -- B. FISCHER-TROPSCH FUEL: THE FIRST DROP-IN JET FUEL -- C. ASTM D7566 SYNTHESIZED HYDROCARBONS: INCREASING THE RANGE OF DROP-IN FUELS BEYOND SPK -- D. NOTEWORTHY PROPERTIES OF SYNTHETIC FUEL COMPARED TO THOSE OF CONVENTIONAL FUEL -- 1. COMPOSITION -- 2. HYDROGEN CONTENT -- 3. AROMATIC CONTENT -- 4. AROMATICS VERSUS CYCLOPARAFFINS -- 5. DENSITY -- 6. ENERGY PER MASS CONTENT -- 8. DISTILLATION AND FLASH POINT -- 9. IGNITION QUALITY AND DELAY -- 10. BLEND RELATIONSHIPS.
11. SURROGATE FUELS -- 12. SYNTHETIC FUEL IMPACT ON COMBUSTION FOM -- E. SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE JET FUEL RESEARCH IN THE EARLY 2000S -- F. TECHNOLOGY GAPS FROM THE LITERATURE -- V. EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS BY AIRCRAFT ENGINE MANUFACTURERS -- VI. NATIONAL JET FUEL COMBUSTION PROGRAM -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter III: Reference Jet Fuel Selection and Properties -- I. INTRODUCTION -- A. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND -- B. DEVELOPMENT OF REFERENCE FUELS -- II. CONVENTIONAL/REFERENCE FUELS: CATEGORY A -- III. TEST FUELS: CATEGORY C -- A. OVERVIEW OF CATEGORY C FUELS -- B. SPECIFICATION PROPERTIES -- C. COMPOSITION -- D. FIT-FOR-PURPOSE PROPERTIES -- IV. CONTROLLED-CETANE FUELS -- V. SURROGATE FUELS -- VI. SUMMARY -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter IV: Referee Rig -- I. BACKGROUND/MOTIVATION -- A. BACKGROUND -- B. FOM -- II. REFEREE RIG COMBUSTOR -- A. OVERALL DESIGN APPROACH -- B. OVERALL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMBUSTOR -- 1. DETAILS OF THE LINERS -- 2. COMBUSTOR DOME DESIGN -- 3. SWIRLER CONSTRUCTION -- 4. IGNITER SYSTEM -- 5. OPTICAL ACCESS -- C. BASELINE AIR MASS FLOW DISTRIBUTIONS -- III. EXPERIMENTAL COMBUSTION FACILITY -- A. COMBUSTOR RIG DESCRIPTION -- B. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEMS -- 1. AIR SYSTEM -- 2. EXHAUST QUENCH SYSTEMS -- 3. FUEL CONTROL -- 4. VACUUM SYSTEM -- 5. SPARK EXCITER -- 6. DATA ACQUISITION -- 7. CONTROLS -- C. DIAGNOSTICS -- 1. FACILITY DIAGNOSTICS -- 2. PHOTODIODE -- 3. ELECTRICAL SPARK MEASUREMENTS -- 4. HIGH SPEED CAMERAS -- 5. PHASE DOPPLER PARTICLE ANALYZER -- D. PERFORMANCE ENVELOPE OF THE FACILITY -- 1. COMBUSTOR PRESSURE -- 2. AIR MASS FLOWS -- 3. AIR AND FUEL TEMPERATURE -- IV. RELATIONSHIP OF THE REFEREE RIG TO OTHER WORK PRESENTED IN THE BOOK -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT -- REFERENCES -- Chapter V: Lean Blowout Studies -- I. MOTIVATION -- II. BACKGROUND -- III. COMBUSTOR RIGS.
A. REFEREE RIG -- B. GEORGIA TECH RIG -- C. ALLISON T63 ENGINE -- D. HONEYWELL APU RIG -- E. WELL-STIRRED REACTOR -- F. UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE BLUFF-BODY RIG -- G. UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD: ROLLS-ROYCE TAY COMBUSTOR -- IV. FUELS -- V. OTHER LBO FUEL SENSITIVITY EXPERIMENTS -- VI. LBO RESULTS -- A. INTRODUCTION TO FUEL PROPERTY EFFECTS -- B. PHYSICAL PROPERTY CORRELATIONS -- C. CHEMICAL PROPERTY CORRELATIONS -- D. PREFERENTIAL VAPORIZATION -- VII. REGRESSION ANALYSIS -- VIII. NEAR-LBO PHENOMENOLOGY -- A. EXTINCTION EVENTS DETECTED FROM OH PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE TIME SERIES -- B. REIGNITION RECOVERIES DETECTED FROM CH CHEMILUMINESCENCE VIDEOS -- C. DURATION OF THE LBO EVENT -- IX. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter VI: Ignition -- I. INTRODUCTION -- A. MOTIVATION -- B. BACKGROUND REVIEW -- II. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS -- A. ENGINE RIG AT THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL -- 1. TEST PROCEDURES -- 2. DATA REDUCTION METHODS: MINIMUM FUEL-TO-AIR MASS RATIO FOR LIGHTOFF -- B. APU COMBUSTOR AT HONEYWELL -- C. REFEREE COMBUSTOR AT THE AIR FORCE RESEARCH LABORATORY AT WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR FORCE BASE -- 1. REFEREE COMBUSTOR TEST PROCEDURES -- 2. DATA REDUCTION -- D. SINGLE-CUP COMBUSTOR AT THE ARMY RESEARCH LABORATORY ALTITUDE RELIGHT FACILITY -- 1. ARC-L1 -- 2. HIGH-ALTITUDE IGNITION PROBABILITY MEASUREMENT CONDITIONS -- 3. DIAGNOSTICS -- E. KERNEL TRANSITION RIG AT GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY -- 1. IGNITER AND KERNEL CHARACTERIZATION -- 2. PREVAPORIZED EXPERIMENTS -- 3. LIQUID SPRAY EXPERIMENTS -- 4. TEST PROCEDURES: IGNITION DETECTION AND IGNITION PROBABILITY -- 5. ADDITIONAL DIAGNOSTICS -- 6. DATA REDUCTION METHODS: SINGLE-SHOT PROBABILITIES -- III. RESULTS -- A. NRC ENGINE RIG IGNITION -- 1. TTL -- 2. ALTITUDE EFFECT AND COMBUSTION STABILITY LOOP -- 3. ENGINE RIG OBSERVATIONS -- B. APU COMBUSTOR AT HONEYWELL.
1. WARM-FUEL IGNITION EXPERIMENTS -- 2. COLD-FUEL IGNITION EXPERIMENTS -- C. REFEREE RIG -- 1. COLD-START IGNITION -- 2. ALTITUDE RELIGHT -- D. ARL SINGLE-CUP COMBUSTOR -- 1. IGNITION PROBABILITY AT 25,000 FT -- 2. HIGH-SPEED IMAGING -- 3. CENTERLINE FLOW VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS -- E. KERNEL IGNITION -- 1. IGNITION KERNEL CHARACTERIZATION -- 2. PREVAPORIZED IGNITION -- 3. LIQUID SPRAY IGNITION -- IV. DISCUSSION OF CONTROLLING MECHANISMS AND FUEL EFFECTS -- A. INTERPRETATION OF RANDOM FOREST REGRESSION -- B. OTHER EFFECTS -- V. SUMMARY -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter VII: Chemical Kinetics -- I. OVERVIEW -- II. DETAILED HYCHEM MODELS -- A. OVERVIEW OF THE HYCHEM APPROACH -- B. HYCHEM MODEL CONSTRUCTION -- III. SHOCK-TUBE/LASER STUDIES IN SUPPORT OF HYCHEM -- A. INTRODUCTION -- B. SPECIATION MEASUREMENTS -- 1. SHOCK-TUBE/LASER ABSORPTION STRATEGY -- 2. REPRESENTATIVE ETHYLENE AND METHANE RESULTS FOR JET FUELS -- C. MULTIWAVELENGTH/MULTISPECIES LEAST-SQUARES ANALYSIS -- 1. WAVELENGTH SELECTION -- 2. CROSS SECTIONS AND CROSS-SECTION DATABASE -- 3. CONVEX SPECIATION -- 4. MULTISPECIES ANALYSIS FOR JET FUELS -- D. DEVELOPMENT OF HYCHEM MODELS FOR ALTERNATIVE FUELS -- E. FUEL PROPERTY-IR SPECTRUM CORRELATION DEVELOPMENT -- 1. IDT VERSUS ETHYLENE YIELD -- 2. ETHYLENE YIELD VERSUS DERIVED CETANE NUMBER -- 3. IDT VERSUS DCN -- 4. QUANTITATIVE MEASURE OF DEGREE OF BRANCHING FOR DISTILLATE AND SYNTHETIC FUELS -- 5. EXTENSION OF FUEL PROPERTY CORRELATIONS TO BROAD IR SPECTRA -- IV. REDUCED MODELS -- A. STRATEGIES FOR MODEL REDUCTION -- B. REDUCED MODELS FOR A-2, C-1, AND C-5 -- C. UNIVERSAL FRAMEWORK OF SKELETAL AND REDUCED HYCHEM MODELS -- D. MODEL VALIDATION -- E. DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTIC JACOBIAN AND ADVANCED CHEMISTRY SOLVERS -- F. PERFORMANCE OF THE REDUCED MODELS AND CHEMISTRY SOLVERS -- V. CONCLUSIONS -- A. DETAILED HYCHEM MODELS -- B. EXPERIMENTS.
C. MODEL REDUCTION -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter VIII: Spray Characteristics of Conventional and Alternative Fuels -- I. INTRODUCTION -- A. SPRAY MEASUREMENTS UNDER NEAR-LBO CONDITIONS -- B. SPRAY MEASUREMENTS UNDER CHILLED FUEL/AIR CONDITIONS -- C. EMPIRICAL SPRAY CORRELATIONS -- II. PURDUE EXPERIMENTAL TEST FACILITY AND CONDITIONS -- A. VARIABLE AMBIENT-PRESSURE SPRAY APPARATUS -- B. HYBRID PRESSURE-SWIRL AIRBLAST ATOMIZER -- C. FUELS TESTED -- D. OPERATING CONDITIONS -- 1. NEAR-LBO CONDITIONS -- 2. CHILLED FUEL/AIR CONDITIONS -- E. PHASE DOPPLER ANEMOMETRY -- F. CONE ANGLE MEASUREMENTS -- G. TEST PROCEDURES -- III. PURDUE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION -- A. NEAR-LBO MEASUREMENTS -- 1. SPATIALLY RESOLVED DROPLET DIAMETERS AND DROPLET VELOCITIES -- 2. EFFECTS OF FUEL TYPE -- 3. FULL CONE ANGLE VARIATION -- 4. EFFECTS OF PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE SWIRLER -- 5. EFFECTS OF FUEL INJECTION PRESSURE -- 6. COMPARISON OF THE SPRAY IN REACTING AND NONREACTING FLOWS -- B. CHILLED FUEL MEASUREMENTS -- 1. EFFECTS OF FUEL TYPE -- 2. EFFECTS OF PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE SWIRLER -- 3. EFFECTS OF FUEL INJECTION PRESSURE -- C. CHILLED FUEL/AIR MEASUREMENT -- 1. SPATIALLY RESOLVED DROPLET DIAMETERS AND DROPLET VELOCITIES -- 2. EFFECTS OF FUEL TYPE -- 3. EFFECTS OF PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE SWIRLER -- 4. COMPARISON OF SPRAY MEASUREMENTS UNDER NEAR-LBO AND CHILLED FUEL/AIR CONDITIONS -- D. UNCERTAINTIES -- IV. SEMIEMPIRICAL SPRAY CORRELATIONS BASED ON PURDUE DATA -- A. FUNDAMENTAL BASIS OF CORRELATIONS -- B. CORRELATION DETAILS -- 1. LINE-OF-SIGHT SMD CALCULATIONS -- 2. UPDATED AIR-ASSIST ATOMIZER CORRELATIONS -- C. LBO FUEL TESTS -- 1. EFFECTS OF FUEL PRESSURE DROP AT 0.5 in. -- 2. EFFECTS OF AIR PRESSURE DROP AT 0.5 in. -- 4. EFFECTS OF AIR PRESSURE DROPS AT 1.0 in. -- D. CHILLED FUEL TESTS -- 1. EFFECTS OF FUEL PRESSURE DROP -- 2. EFFECTS OF AIR PRESSURE DROP.
E. CHILLED FUEL/AIR TESTS.
Summary: Alternative jet fuel has been an active area of research and development since the 1973 oil embargo. Research goals have included establishing energy security, lowering fuel costs, and reducing emissions with a focus on developing cost-effective methodologies for processing and sustaining jet fuel production from shale, tar sands, coal, biomass, end use waste, and CO2. Physical and chemical properties, such as the viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling range, freeze point and hydrogen content, have been measured for many potential alternative jet fuels. Combustion characteristics, such as lean blow-out and ignition, have also been investigated in gas turbine engines and fundamental combustion devices. The compilation of this research has resulted in a large technical base for understanding the combustion of alternative jet fuels that have a wide range of physical and chemical properties and operating in different combustion devices.
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Cover -- Table of Contents -- Preface -- Chapter I: Introduction -- I. BACKGROUND -- A. MOTIVATION FOR FUEL STUDIES -- B. JET FUEL AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATION -- 1. ENGINE AND AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATION -- 2. AVIATION FUEL AIRWORTHINESS APPROVAL -- 3. JET FUEL SPECIFICATIONS -- C. BACKGROUND: ALTERNATIVE FUELS -- D. ALTERNATIVE JET FUEL EVALUATION -- II. COST-EFFECTIVE APPROACH TO THE AJF EVALUATION PROCESS -- III. FOM, TEST TARGETS, AND CONDITIONS -- A. LEAN BLOWOUT -- B. IGNITION: COLD START AND ALTITUDE RELIGHT -- C. FUEL EFFECTS ON GEOMETRIC AND THERMODYNAMIC CONDITIONS -- 1. DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF COMBUSTOR DESIGNS -- 2. THERMODYNAMIC CONDITIONS -- IV. STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter II: Historical Perspective on Fuel Effects -- I. BACKGROUND -- II. FUEL EFFECTS ON COMBUSTION: 1970S-1980S ALTERNATIVE FUEL PROGRAMS -- A. FUEL PROPERTY EFFECTS ON COMBUSTION: GENERAL RELATIONSHIPS FOUND IN THE 1970S AND 1980S -- 1. EMISSIONS: SMOKE AND SOOT -- 2. GASEOUS EMISSIONS -- 3. TEMPERATURE FIELD -- 4. OPERABILITY -- B. ENGINE OEM HARDWARE AND CONDITIONS USED FOR 1970S AND 1980S RESEARCH -- C. SUMMARY OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FUEL PROPERTIES AND COMBUSTION FROM THE EARLY RESEARCH -- III. THE JP-4-TO-JP-8 CONVERSION -- IV. SYNTHETIC FUELS COMPARED TO CONTEMPORARY JET A, JET A-1, AND JP-8 KEROSENE -- A. CHANGE IN R&amp -- D PHILOSOPHY -- B. FISCHER-TROPSCH FUEL: THE FIRST DROP-IN JET FUEL -- C. ASTM D7566 SYNTHESIZED HYDROCARBONS: INCREASING THE RANGE OF DROP-IN FUELS BEYOND SPK -- D. NOTEWORTHY PROPERTIES OF SYNTHETIC FUEL COMPARED TO THOSE OF CONVENTIONAL FUEL -- 1. COMPOSITION -- 2. HYDROGEN CONTENT -- 3. AROMATIC CONTENT -- 4. AROMATICS VERSUS CYCLOPARAFFINS -- 5. DENSITY -- 6. ENERGY PER MASS CONTENT -- 8. DISTILLATION AND FLASH POINT -- 9. IGNITION QUALITY AND DELAY -- 10. BLEND RELATIONSHIPS.

11. SURROGATE FUELS -- 12. SYNTHETIC FUEL IMPACT ON COMBUSTION FOM -- E. SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE JET FUEL RESEARCH IN THE EARLY 2000S -- F. TECHNOLOGY GAPS FROM THE LITERATURE -- V. EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS BY AIRCRAFT ENGINE MANUFACTURERS -- VI. NATIONAL JET FUEL COMBUSTION PROGRAM -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter III: Reference Jet Fuel Selection and Properties -- I. INTRODUCTION -- A. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND -- B. DEVELOPMENT OF REFERENCE FUELS -- II. CONVENTIONAL/REFERENCE FUELS: CATEGORY A -- III. TEST FUELS: CATEGORY C -- A. OVERVIEW OF CATEGORY C FUELS -- B. SPECIFICATION PROPERTIES -- C. COMPOSITION -- D. FIT-FOR-PURPOSE PROPERTIES -- IV. CONTROLLED-CETANE FUELS -- V. SURROGATE FUELS -- VI. SUMMARY -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter IV: Referee Rig -- I. BACKGROUND/MOTIVATION -- A. BACKGROUND -- B. FOM -- II. REFEREE RIG COMBUSTOR -- A. OVERALL DESIGN APPROACH -- B. OVERALL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMBUSTOR -- 1. DETAILS OF THE LINERS -- 2. COMBUSTOR DOME DESIGN -- 3. SWIRLER CONSTRUCTION -- 4. IGNITER SYSTEM -- 5. OPTICAL ACCESS -- C. BASELINE AIR MASS FLOW DISTRIBUTIONS -- III. EXPERIMENTAL COMBUSTION FACILITY -- A. COMBUSTOR RIG DESCRIPTION -- B. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEMS -- 1. AIR SYSTEM -- 2. EXHAUST QUENCH SYSTEMS -- 3. FUEL CONTROL -- 4. VACUUM SYSTEM -- 5. SPARK EXCITER -- 6. DATA ACQUISITION -- 7. CONTROLS -- C. DIAGNOSTICS -- 1. FACILITY DIAGNOSTICS -- 2. PHOTODIODE -- 3. ELECTRICAL SPARK MEASUREMENTS -- 4. HIGH SPEED CAMERAS -- 5. PHASE DOPPLER PARTICLE ANALYZER -- D. PERFORMANCE ENVELOPE OF THE FACILITY -- 1. COMBUSTOR PRESSURE -- 2. AIR MASS FLOWS -- 3. AIR AND FUEL TEMPERATURE -- IV. RELATIONSHIP OF THE REFEREE RIG TO OTHER WORK PRESENTED IN THE BOOK -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT -- REFERENCES -- Chapter V: Lean Blowout Studies -- I. MOTIVATION -- II. BACKGROUND -- III. COMBUSTOR RIGS.

A. REFEREE RIG -- B. GEORGIA TECH RIG -- C. ALLISON T63 ENGINE -- D. HONEYWELL APU RIG -- E. WELL-STIRRED REACTOR -- F. UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE BLUFF-BODY RIG -- G. UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD: ROLLS-ROYCE TAY COMBUSTOR -- IV. FUELS -- V. OTHER LBO FUEL SENSITIVITY EXPERIMENTS -- VI. LBO RESULTS -- A. INTRODUCTION TO FUEL PROPERTY EFFECTS -- B. PHYSICAL PROPERTY CORRELATIONS -- C. CHEMICAL PROPERTY CORRELATIONS -- D. PREFERENTIAL VAPORIZATION -- VII. REGRESSION ANALYSIS -- VIII. NEAR-LBO PHENOMENOLOGY -- A. EXTINCTION EVENTS DETECTED FROM OH PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE TIME SERIES -- B. REIGNITION RECOVERIES DETECTED FROM CH CHEMILUMINESCENCE VIDEOS -- C. DURATION OF THE LBO EVENT -- IX. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter VI: Ignition -- I. INTRODUCTION -- A. MOTIVATION -- B. BACKGROUND REVIEW -- II. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS -- A. ENGINE RIG AT THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL -- 1. TEST PROCEDURES -- 2. DATA REDUCTION METHODS: MINIMUM FUEL-TO-AIR MASS RATIO FOR LIGHTOFF -- B. APU COMBUSTOR AT HONEYWELL -- C. REFEREE COMBUSTOR AT THE AIR FORCE RESEARCH LABORATORY AT WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR FORCE BASE -- 1. REFEREE COMBUSTOR TEST PROCEDURES -- 2. DATA REDUCTION -- D. SINGLE-CUP COMBUSTOR AT THE ARMY RESEARCH LABORATORY ALTITUDE RELIGHT FACILITY -- 1. ARC-L1 -- 2. HIGH-ALTITUDE IGNITION PROBABILITY MEASUREMENT CONDITIONS -- 3. DIAGNOSTICS -- E. KERNEL TRANSITION RIG AT GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY -- 1. IGNITER AND KERNEL CHARACTERIZATION -- 2. PREVAPORIZED EXPERIMENTS -- 3. LIQUID SPRAY EXPERIMENTS -- 4. TEST PROCEDURES: IGNITION DETECTION AND IGNITION PROBABILITY -- 5. ADDITIONAL DIAGNOSTICS -- 6. DATA REDUCTION METHODS: SINGLE-SHOT PROBABILITIES -- III. RESULTS -- A. NRC ENGINE RIG IGNITION -- 1. TTL -- 2. ALTITUDE EFFECT AND COMBUSTION STABILITY LOOP -- 3. ENGINE RIG OBSERVATIONS -- B. APU COMBUSTOR AT HONEYWELL.

1. WARM-FUEL IGNITION EXPERIMENTS -- 2. COLD-FUEL IGNITION EXPERIMENTS -- C. REFEREE RIG -- 1. COLD-START IGNITION -- 2. ALTITUDE RELIGHT -- D. ARL SINGLE-CUP COMBUSTOR -- 1. IGNITION PROBABILITY AT 25,000 FT -- 2. HIGH-SPEED IMAGING -- 3. CENTERLINE FLOW VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS -- E. KERNEL IGNITION -- 1. IGNITION KERNEL CHARACTERIZATION -- 2. PREVAPORIZED IGNITION -- 3. LIQUID SPRAY IGNITION -- IV. DISCUSSION OF CONTROLLING MECHANISMS AND FUEL EFFECTS -- A. INTERPRETATION OF RANDOM FOREST REGRESSION -- B. OTHER EFFECTS -- V. SUMMARY -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter VII: Chemical Kinetics -- I. OVERVIEW -- II. DETAILED HYCHEM MODELS -- A. OVERVIEW OF THE HYCHEM APPROACH -- B. HYCHEM MODEL CONSTRUCTION -- III. SHOCK-TUBE/LASER STUDIES IN SUPPORT OF HYCHEM -- A. INTRODUCTION -- B. SPECIATION MEASUREMENTS -- 1. SHOCK-TUBE/LASER ABSORPTION STRATEGY -- 2. REPRESENTATIVE ETHYLENE AND METHANE RESULTS FOR JET FUELS -- C. MULTIWAVELENGTH/MULTISPECIES LEAST-SQUARES ANALYSIS -- 1. WAVELENGTH SELECTION -- 2. CROSS SECTIONS AND CROSS-SECTION DATABASE -- 3. CONVEX SPECIATION -- 4. MULTISPECIES ANALYSIS FOR JET FUELS -- D. DEVELOPMENT OF HYCHEM MODELS FOR ALTERNATIVE FUELS -- E. FUEL PROPERTY-IR SPECTRUM CORRELATION DEVELOPMENT -- 1. IDT VERSUS ETHYLENE YIELD -- 2. ETHYLENE YIELD VERSUS DERIVED CETANE NUMBER -- 3. IDT VERSUS DCN -- 4. QUANTITATIVE MEASURE OF DEGREE OF BRANCHING FOR DISTILLATE AND SYNTHETIC FUELS -- 5. EXTENSION OF FUEL PROPERTY CORRELATIONS TO BROAD IR SPECTRA -- IV. REDUCED MODELS -- A. STRATEGIES FOR MODEL REDUCTION -- B. REDUCED MODELS FOR A-2, C-1, AND C-5 -- C. UNIVERSAL FRAMEWORK OF SKELETAL AND REDUCED HYCHEM MODELS -- D. MODEL VALIDATION -- E. DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTIC JACOBIAN AND ADVANCED CHEMISTRY SOLVERS -- F. PERFORMANCE OF THE REDUCED MODELS AND CHEMISTRY SOLVERS -- V. CONCLUSIONS -- A. DETAILED HYCHEM MODELS -- B. EXPERIMENTS.

C. MODEL REDUCTION -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Chapter VIII: Spray Characteristics of Conventional and Alternative Fuels -- I. INTRODUCTION -- A. SPRAY MEASUREMENTS UNDER NEAR-LBO CONDITIONS -- B. SPRAY MEASUREMENTS UNDER CHILLED FUEL/AIR CONDITIONS -- C. EMPIRICAL SPRAY CORRELATIONS -- II. PURDUE EXPERIMENTAL TEST FACILITY AND CONDITIONS -- A. VARIABLE AMBIENT-PRESSURE SPRAY APPARATUS -- B. HYBRID PRESSURE-SWIRL AIRBLAST ATOMIZER -- C. FUELS TESTED -- D. OPERATING CONDITIONS -- 1. NEAR-LBO CONDITIONS -- 2. CHILLED FUEL/AIR CONDITIONS -- E. PHASE DOPPLER ANEMOMETRY -- F. CONE ANGLE MEASUREMENTS -- G. TEST PROCEDURES -- III. PURDUE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION -- A. NEAR-LBO MEASUREMENTS -- 1. SPATIALLY RESOLVED DROPLET DIAMETERS AND DROPLET VELOCITIES -- 2. EFFECTS OF FUEL TYPE -- 3. FULL CONE ANGLE VARIATION -- 4. EFFECTS OF PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE SWIRLER -- 5. EFFECTS OF FUEL INJECTION PRESSURE -- 6. COMPARISON OF THE SPRAY IN REACTING AND NONREACTING FLOWS -- B. CHILLED FUEL MEASUREMENTS -- 1. EFFECTS OF FUEL TYPE -- 2. EFFECTS OF PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE SWIRLER -- 3. EFFECTS OF FUEL INJECTION PRESSURE -- C. CHILLED FUEL/AIR MEASUREMENT -- 1. SPATIALLY RESOLVED DROPLET DIAMETERS AND DROPLET VELOCITIES -- 2. EFFECTS OF FUEL TYPE -- 3. EFFECTS OF PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE SWIRLER -- 4. COMPARISON OF SPRAY MEASUREMENTS UNDER NEAR-LBO AND CHILLED FUEL/AIR CONDITIONS -- D. UNCERTAINTIES -- IV. SEMIEMPIRICAL SPRAY CORRELATIONS BASED ON PURDUE DATA -- A. FUNDAMENTAL BASIS OF CORRELATIONS -- B. CORRELATION DETAILS -- 1. LINE-OF-SIGHT SMD CALCULATIONS -- 2. UPDATED AIR-ASSIST ATOMIZER CORRELATIONS -- C. LBO FUEL TESTS -- 1. EFFECTS OF FUEL PRESSURE DROP AT 0.5 in. -- 2. EFFECTS OF AIR PRESSURE DROP AT 0.5 in. -- 4. EFFECTS OF AIR PRESSURE DROPS AT 1.0 in. -- D. CHILLED FUEL TESTS -- 1. EFFECTS OF FUEL PRESSURE DROP -- 2. EFFECTS OF AIR PRESSURE DROP.

E. CHILLED FUEL/AIR TESTS.

Alternative jet fuel has been an active area of research and development since the 1973 oil embargo. Research goals have included establishing energy security, lowering fuel costs, and reducing emissions with a focus on developing cost-effective methodologies for processing and sustaining jet fuel production from shale, tar sands, coal, biomass, end use waste, and CO2. Physical and chemical properties, such as the viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling range, freeze point and hydrogen content, have been measured for many potential alternative jet fuels. Combustion characteristics, such as lean blow-out and ignition, have also been investigated in gas turbine engines and fundamental combustion devices. The compilation of this research has resulted in a large technical base for understanding the combustion of alternative jet fuels that have a wide range of physical and chemical properties and operating in different combustion devices.

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