The Life-Cycle of Pharmaceuticals in the Environment.

Front Cover -- The Life-Cycle of Pharmaceuticals in the Environment -- Copyright -- Dedication -- Contents -- Foreword -- Acknowledgements -- Chapter 1: Introduction -- 1.1 Overview: Do pharmaceuticals pose a significant environmental risk? -- 1.2 Hazardous substances -- 1.3 Pathways to the environment: Life-cycle of pharmaceuticals -- 1.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2: Prescribing practices -- 2.1 Pharmaceuticals in legislative and healthcare systems -- 2.1.1 Case study: the role of PHARMAC in New Zealand pharmaceutical expenditure -- 2.2 The role of patient medical adherence -- 2.2.1 Secondary nonadherence and conscientiousness -- 2.2.2 Secondary nonadherence and medication-information seeking behavior -- 2.2.3 "White coat adherence" syndrome -- 2.2.4 Secondary nonadherence and adverse drug reactions, side effects, or efficacy -- 2.2.5 Secondary nonadherence and complex dosing regimens -- 2.3 Strategies to minimize medication nonadherence -- 2.4 "Doctor, it just doesn't work!"-Pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and pharmaceutical waste -- 2.4.1 Action and behavior of drugs -- 2.4.2 Patient medical history -- 2.4.3 Concomitant medications -- 2.4.4 Dose titrations -- 2.5 "How much are those antibiotics? I want'em!" -- 2.6 Accumulation of unused medications -- 2.6.1 Return of unused medications to pharmacies and general medical practices -- 2.7 Strategies to prevent accumulation of unused pharmaceuticals -- References -- Chapter 3: Disposal of unused medications -- 3.1 Overview -- 3.2 The origins of unused medication -- 3.3 Medication disposal by households -- 3.4 Attitudes toward medication disposal -- 3.4.1 Influence of dosage form design -- 3.4.2 Medication disposal methods and environmental awareness -- 3.4.3 Medication disposal and advice received -- 3.4.4 Medication disposal practices and demographics.

3.4.5 Availability of formalized protocols for unused medication disposal -- 3.5 Feasibility of take-back programmes for unused medication -- 3.6 Management of pharmaceutical waste at take-back depots -- 3.7 The "best" method for the disposal of unused medications? -- 3.8 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4: Detection and presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment -- 4.1 Overview -- 4.2 Environmental detection of pharmaceuticals -- 4.3 Sample collection -- 4.3.1 To silanize or not to silanize-that is the sample container -- 4.3.2 Modes and frequency of sampling -- 4.3.3 Sample storage conditions and preservation techniques -- 4.3.4 Sample filtration -- 4.4 Sample extraction -- 4.4.1 Solid-phase extraction -- 4.4.2 Liquid-liquid extraction -- 4.5 Chromatographic separation of environmental sample extracts -- 4.6 Mass spectrometric detection and quantitation -- 4.6.1 Forms of output from LC-MS/MS -- 4.6.2 Identification and quantification of an analyte -- 4.6.3 Limits of detection -- 4.6.4 Extraction recovery efficiency and matrix effect -- 4.7 Environmental concentrations of some common pharmaceuticals -- 4.8 Summary -- References -- Chapter 5: Impact of pharmaceuticals on the environment -- 5.1 Overview -- 5.2 Environmental risk assessment methodologies -- 5.3 Experimental variables involved in risk assessment -- 5.3.1 Environmental persistence -- 5.3.1.1 Environmental persistence of pharmaceuticals in water -- 5.3.1.2 Environmental persistence in soils and sediment -- 5.3.1.3 Environmental persistence in marine and coastal wetland environments -- 5.3.1.4 Categorization of environmental persistence of pharmaceuticals -- 5.3.2.1 Bioconcentration factors of pharmaceuticals -- 5.3.3 Fate of pharmaceuticals in environmental organisms (toxicokinetics) -- 5.4 Ecotoxicology -- 5.4.1 Acute versus chronic ecotoxicity.

5.4.2 Ecotoxicology testing in fish -- 5.4.3 Ecotoxicology testing with Daphnia -- 5.4.4 Ecotoxicology testing with plants and algae -- 5.5 Mixture toxicity -- 5.6 Case study: Paracetamol (acetaminophen) in the environment -- 5.7 Case study: Fluoxetine in the environment -- 5.8 Case study: Diclofenac in the environment -- 5.9 Summary -- References -- Chapter 6: Degradation of pharmaceuticals in wastewater -- 6.1 Basic steps in wastewater treatment -- 6.1.1 Preliminary treatment -- 6.1.2 Primary treatment -- 6.1.3 Secondary treatment -- 6.1.3.1 Suspended growth-activated sludge -- 6.1.3.2 Oxidation ditch -- 6.1.3.3 Attached growth processes -- 6.1.3.4 Surface-aerated basin (oxidation/stabilization pond, lagoon) -- 6.1.4 Tertiary treatment -- 6.1.4.1 Filtration/membrane separation processes -- 6.1.4.2 Adsorption by activated carbon -- 6.1.4.3 Advanced oxidation processes -- 6.1.5 Other sewage treatment methods -- 6.1.5.1 Land treatment -- 6.1.5.2 Wetlands -- 6.1.5.3 Onsite sewage treatment and disposal (septic tanks) -- 6.2 Removal and degradation of selected human pharmaceuticals -- 6.2.1 Degradation of some common pharmaceuticals in wastewater -- 6.2.1.1 Paracetamol (acetaminophen) -- 6.2.1.2 Diclofenac -- 6.2.1.3 Ibuprofen -- 6.2.1.4 β -blockers -- 6.2.1.5 Antibiotics -- 6.2.1.6 An antiviral drug (oseltamivir) -- 6.2.1.7 A psychotic drug (fluoxetine) -- 6.2.2 Laboratory studies of pharmaceutical degradation in aqueous solution -- 6.2.2.1 Paracetamol -- 6.2.2.2 Diclofenac -- 6.2.2.3 Ibuprofen -- 6.2.2.4 β -Blockers -- 6.2.2.5 Oseltamivir -- 6.2.2.6 Fluoxetine -- 6.3 Effect of the natural organic matrix on pharmaceutical removal and degradation in wastewater -- 6.4 Summary and conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7: Regulatory practices to control the discharge of pharmaceuticals into the environment.

7.1 Overview -- 7.2 The United States of America and Canada -- 7.3 European Union (EU) -- 7.4 China and other parts of Asia -- 7.5 Australia -- 7.6 New Zealand -- 7.7 Challenges and conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8: Green chemistry, green pharmacy, and life-cycle assessments -- 8.1 Green chemistry and green pharmacy -- 8.1.2 Application to pharmaceuticals -- 8.2 Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) -- 8.3 Summary -- References -- Chapter 9: Summary and Conclusions -- 9.1 The potential environmental risk of pharmaceuticals? -- 9.2 Some possible future considerations -- Index -- Back Cover.

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Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, Michigan : ProQuest Ebook Central, 2024. Available via World Wide Web. Access may be limited to ProQuest Ebook Central affiliated libraries.