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Fossil Parasites.

By: Contributor(s): Material type: TextTextSeries: Issn SeriesPublisher: San Diego : Elsevier Science & Technology, 2015Copyright date: ©2015Edition: 1st edDescription: 1 online resource (462 pages)Content type:
  • text
Media type:
  • computer
Carrier type:
  • online resource
ISBN:
  • 9780128040270
Subject(s): Genre/Form: Additional physical formats: Print version:: Fossil ParasitesDDC classification:
  • 616.96
LOC classification:
  • QL757
Online resources:
Contents:
Front Cover -- SERIES EDITOR -- EDITORIAL BOARD -- Fossil Parasites -- Copyright -- CONTENTS -- CONTRIBUTORS -- PREFACE -- One - The Importance of Fossils in Understanding the Evolution of Parasites and Their Vectors -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. TECHNIQUES FOR ANCIENT PARASITE DISCOVERY -- 2.1 Thin sections and computed tomography -- 2.2 Ancient biomolecules -- 2.2.1 Ancient DNA -- 2.2.2 Palaeoproteomics -- 3. THE PARASITE FOSSIL RECORD -- 3.1 Body fossils -- 3.2 Trace fossils and pathologies -- 3.3 Coprolites -- 4. MOLECULAR PERSPECTIVES ON PARASITE PHYLOGENY AND EVOLUTION -- 4.1 Molecular clocks -- 4.2 HGT and 'parasitic DNA' -- 5. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Two - The Geological Record of Parasitic Nematode Evolution -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. MEDIA FOR THE STUDY OF FOSSIL NEMATODES -- 2.1 Amber -- 2.2 Rock fossils -- 2.3 Coprolites -- 3. PALAEOZOIC PARASITIC NEMATODES -- 4. PARASITIC NEMATODE BODY FOSSILS FROM THE MESOZOIC -- 5. NEMATODE PARASITES FROM THE EARLY CENOZOIC -- 5.1 Baltic amber -- 6. NEMATODE PARASITES FROM THE OLIGOCENE-MIOCENE -- 6.1 Dominican amber nematodes -- 6.2 Mexican amber nematodes -- 7. NEMATODE PARASITES FROM THE PLIOCENE -- 8. NEMATODE PARASITES FROM THE PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE -- 8.1 Nematode parasites of humans from the Pleistocene and Holocene -- 9. STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF NEMATODE PARASITES OF INVERTEBRATES -- 10. ORIGIN OF NEMATODE PARASITES OF VERTEBRATES -- 11. ORIGIN OF NEMATODE PARASITES OF PLANTS -- 12. SUMMARY -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Three - Constraining the Deep Origin of Parasitic Flatworms and Host-Interactions with Fossil Evidence -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. ASSESSMENT OF THE FLATWORM FOSSIL RECORD -- 2.1 Devonian fossil hook circlets -- 2.2 Silurian blister pearls and calcareous concretions in bivalve shells.
2.3 Permo-Carboniferous egg remains in shark coprolites -- 2.4 Cretaceous egg remains in terrestrial archosaur coprolites -- 2.5 Eocene shell pits in intermediate bivalve hosts -- 2.6 Eggs remains in a Pleistocene mammal coprolite -- 2.7 Holocene evidence for parasitic flatworms from ancient remains -- 2.8 Free-living flatworms -- 3. INTERPOLATING OR EXTRAPOLATING EXTANT PARASITE-HOST RELATIONSHIPS AND THE ASSUMPTION OF PARASITE-HOST COEVOLUTION -- 4. MOLECULAR CLOCK STUDIES -- 5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Four - From Fossil Parasitoids to Vectors: Insects as Parasites and Hosts -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 1.1 Insects as parasites and hosts -- 1.2 Insects in the fossil record -- 2. INSECT PARASITISM SENSU STRICTO (S. STR.) - PARANEOPTERA -- 2.1 Phthiraptera -- 2.1.1 General aspects -- 2.1.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 2.1.3 Fossil representatives -- 2.2 Hemiptera -- 2.2.1 General aspects -- 2.2.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 2.2.3 Fossil representatives -- 3. INSECT PARASITISM S.STR. - ANTLIOPHORA -- 3.1 Siphonaptera -- 3.1.1 General aspects -- 3.1.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 3.1.3 Fossil representatives -- 3.2 Diptera -- 3.2.1 General aspects -- 3.2.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 3.2.3 Fossil representatives -- 4. INSECT PARASITISM S.STR. - NEUROPTEROIDA -- 4.1 Neuroptera (Mantispidae) -- 4.1.1 General aspects -- 4.1.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 4.1.3 Fossil representatives -- 4.2 Coleopterida (Coleoptera, Meloidae) -- 4.2.1 General aspects -- 4.2.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution.
4.2.3 Fossil representatives -- 5. PARASITOIDS -- 5.1 Hymenoptera -- 5.1.1 General aspects -- 5.1.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 5.1.3 Fossil representatives -- 5.2 Strepsiptera -- 5.2.1 General aspects -- 5.2.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 5.2.3 Fossil representatives -- 6. PLANT PARASITISM (VERSUS PHYTOPHAGY) -- 6.1 General aspects -- 6.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 6.3 Fossil representatives -- 7. INSECTS AS HOSTS -- 7.1 Nematoida -- 7.1.1 General aspects -- 7.1.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 7.1.3 Fossil representatives -- 7.2 Mites -- 7.2.1 General aspects -- 7.2.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 7.2.3 Fossil representatives -- 7.3 Pseudoscorpions -- 7.3.1 General aspects -- 7.3.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 7.3.3 Fossil representatives -- 8. INSECTS AS VECTORS -- 8.1 General aspects -- 8.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 8.3 Fossil representatives -- 9. CONCLUSION -- 10. OUTLOOK -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Five - Trace Fossil Evidence of Trematode-Bivalve Parasite-Host Interactions in Deep Time -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. TREMATODE-INDUCED SHELL MALFORMATIONS IN LIVING BIVALVE MOLLUSCS -- 3. OCCURRENCES OF TREMATODE-INDUCED PITS IN FOSSIL AND SUBFOSSIL BIVALVES -- 3.1 Taxonomic, temporal and ecological occurrences -- 3.2 Taphonomy and the origin of the trematode-bivalve parasite-host interaction -- 3.3 Trematode-induced malformations as palaeoenvironmental indicators.
4. DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF TREMATODES ON LIVING BIVALVES AND THEIR POTENTIAL EVOLUTIONARY IMPLICATIONS -- 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Six - Fossil Crustaceans as Parasites and Hosts -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. CRUSTACEANS AS HOSTS OF PARASITES -- 2.1 Fossil evidence -- 2.1.1 Isopod parasites in decapod crustaceans -- 2.1.1.1 Modern evidence -- 2.1.1.2 Life cycle and parasitism -- 2.1.1.3 Fossil record -- 2.1.1.4 Quantitative data per fauna -- 2.1.1.5 Infestation patterns through time -- 2.1.1.6 Age -- 2.1.1.7 Biogeography -- 2.1.1.8 On the erection of an ichnotaxon -- 2.1.2 Rhizocephalan barnacles in decapod crustaceans -- 2.1.3 Platyhelminthes in crustaceans -- 2.2 Equivocal fossil evidence -- 2.2.1 Ciliates on ostracods -- 2.3 Modern evidence only -- 2.3.1 Non-crustacean parasites -- 2.3.2 Crustacean parasites -- 3. CRUSTACEANS AS PARASITES OF NON-CRUSTACEAN HOSTS -- 3.1 Fossil evidence -- 3.1.1 Ascothoracidan barnacles in invertebrates -- 3.1.2 Copepods in echinoderms -- 3.1.3 Copepods in fish -- 3.1.4 Gall crabs (Cryptochiridae) in corals -- 3.1.5 Pentastomida -- 3.2 Equivocal fossil evidence -- 3.2.1 Barnacle borings attributed to Acrothoracica in marine invertebrates -- 3.2.2 Barnacles (Pyrgomatidae) in corals -- 3.2.3 Isopods (Cymothooidea) in fishes and squids -- 3.2.4 Crabs (Trapeziidae) and corals -- 3.3 Modern evidence only -- 3.3.1 Copepods -- 3.3.2 Tantulocarida -- 3.3.3 Branchiura -- 3.3.4 Ostracoda -- 3.3.5 Facetotecta -- 3.3.6 Thoracica -- 3.3.7 Malacostraca -- 4. OVERVIEW FOSSIL EVIDENCE AND FUTURE RESEARCH -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Seven - A Prejudiced Review of Ancient Parasites and Their Host Echinoderms: CSI Fossil Record or Just an Excuse fo ... -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. INTERPRETATIONS AND CONFIDENCE -- 2.1 Problems of interpretation -- 2.2 Limits of confidence -- 3. SOME EXAMPLES.
3.1 A coral-crinoid association from the Mississippian (Figure 2) -- 3.2 A growth deformity in a Mississippian crinoid (Figures 2(d-f) and 3) -- 3.3 Epizoobionts infesting a Mississippian crinoid (Figure 4) -- 3.4 Platyceratid gastropods infesting Upper Palaeozoic crinoids (Figures 5 and 6) -- 3.5 Site selectivity of pits in echinoid tests, Upper Cretaceous (Figure 6) -- 4. DISCUSSION -- 5. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Eight - Differentiating Parasitism and Other Interactions in Fossilized Colonial Organisms -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. COLONIAL ANIMALS -- 3. PUTATIVE PARASITES OF FOSSIL COLONIAL ANIMALS -- 3.1 Recognition of parasitism in fossils -- 3.2 Symbiotic intergrowths and bioclaustrations -- 3.2.1 Caunopores -- 3.2.2 Rugose corals and stromatoporoids -- 3.2.3 Chaetosalpinx and other bioclaustrations -- 3.2.4 Cornulitids and colonial hosts -- 3.2.5 Celleporaria and Culicia -- 3.2.6 Pyrgomatid barnacles -- 3.3 Galls -- 3.4 Borings -- 3.5 Supposed parasites of graptolites -- 4. FOSSIL COLONIAL ANIMALS AS PARASITES -- 5. DISCUSSION -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Nine - Palaeoparasitology - Human Parasites in Ancient Material -- 1. INTRODUCTION - PARASITISM -- 2. HUMANS AND PARASITES -- 3. PALAEOPARASITOLOGY -- 4. RECOMMENDED MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUES FOR MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION IN PALAEOPARASITOLOGY -- 4.1 Light microscopy techniques -- 4.2 Counting remains under the microscope -- 4.2.1 Analysis of sediments -- 4.2.2 Coprolites in mummies -- 4.3 Molecular techniques applied to palaeoparasitology -- 4.3.1 Molecular diagnosis -- 5. PARASITE FINDS IN HUMAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS -- 5.1 Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura -- 5.2 Hookworms -- 5.3 Enterobius vermicularis -- 5.4 Diphyllobothrium sp. -- 6. OTHER PARASITES: PARASITES OF ANIMALS FOUND IN HUMAN COPROLITES -- PARASITES IN PREHISTORIC ASIA.
7. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF TRYPANOSOMATIDS IN HUMANS AND THE PARADIGM SHIFT FROM RESULTS IN PALAEOPARASITOLOGY.
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Front Cover -- SERIES EDITOR -- EDITORIAL BOARD -- Fossil Parasites -- Copyright -- CONTENTS -- CONTRIBUTORS -- PREFACE -- One - The Importance of Fossils in Understanding the Evolution of Parasites and Their Vectors -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. TECHNIQUES FOR ANCIENT PARASITE DISCOVERY -- 2.1 Thin sections and computed tomography -- 2.2 Ancient biomolecules -- 2.2.1 Ancient DNA -- 2.2.2 Palaeoproteomics -- 3. THE PARASITE FOSSIL RECORD -- 3.1 Body fossils -- 3.2 Trace fossils and pathologies -- 3.3 Coprolites -- 4. MOLECULAR PERSPECTIVES ON PARASITE PHYLOGENY AND EVOLUTION -- 4.1 Molecular clocks -- 4.2 HGT and 'parasitic DNA' -- 5. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Two - The Geological Record of Parasitic Nematode Evolution -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. MEDIA FOR THE STUDY OF FOSSIL NEMATODES -- 2.1 Amber -- 2.2 Rock fossils -- 2.3 Coprolites -- 3. PALAEOZOIC PARASITIC NEMATODES -- 4. PARASITIC NEMATODE BODY FOSSILS FROM THE MESOZOIC -- 5. NEMATODE PARASITES FROM THE EARLY CENOZOIC -- 5.1 Baltic amber -- 6. NEMATODE PARASITES FROM THE OLIGOCENE-MIOCENE -- 6.1 Dominican amber nematodes -- 6.2 Mexican amber nematodes -- 7. NEMATODE PARASITES FROM THE PLIOCENE -- 8. NEMATODE PARASITES FROM THE PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE -- 8.1 Nematode parasites of humans from the Pleistocene and Holocene -- 9. STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF NEMATODE PARASITES OF INVERTEBRATES -- 10. ORIGIN OF NEMATODE PARASITES OF VERTEBRATES -- 11. ORIGIN OF NEMATODE PARASITES OF PLANTS -- 12. SUMMARY -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Three - Constraining the Deep Origin of Parasitic Flatworms and Host-Interactions with Fossil Evidence -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. ASSESSMENT OF THE FLATWORM FOSSIL RECORD -- 2.1 Devonian fossil hook circlets -- 2.2 Silurian blister pearls and calcareous concretions in bivalve shells.

2.3 Permo-Carboniferous egg remains in shark coprolites -- 2.4 Cretaceous egg remains in terrestrial archosaur coprolites -- 2.5 Eocene shell pits in intermediate bivalve hosts -- 2.6 Eggs remains in a Pleistocene mammal coprolite -- 2.7 Holocene evidence for parasitic flatworms from ancient remains -- 2.8 Free-living flatworms -- 3. INTERPOLATING OR EXTRAPOLATING EXTANT PARASITE-HOST RELATIONSHIPS AND THE ASSUMPTION OF PARASITE-HOST COEVOLUTION -- 4. MOLECULAR CLOCK STUDIES -- 5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Four - From Fossil Parasitoids to Vectors: Insects as Parasites and Hosts -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 1.1 Insects as parasites and hosts -- 1.2 Insects in the fossil record -- 2. INSECT PARASITISM SENSU STRICTO (S. STR.) - PARANEOPTERA -- 2.1 Phthiraptera -- 2.1.1 General aspects -- 2.1.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 2.1.3 Fossil representatives -- 2.2 Hemiptera -- 2.2.1 General aspects -- 2.2.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 2.2.3 Fossil representatives -- 3. INSECT PARASITISM S.STR. - ANTLIOPHORA -- 3.1 Siphonaptera -- 3.1.1 General aspects -- 3.1.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 3.1.3 Fossil representatives -- 3.2 Diptera -- 3.2.1 General aspects -- 3.2.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 3.2.3 Fossil representatives -- 4. INSECT PARASITISM S.STR. - NEUROPTEROIDA -- 4.1 Neuroptera (Mantispidae) -- 4.1.1 General aspects -- 4.1.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 4.1.3 Fossil representatives -- 4.2 Coleopterida (Coleoptera, Meloidae) -- 4.2.1 General aspects -- 4.2.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution.

4.2.3 Fossil representatives -- 5. PARASITOIDS -- 5.1 Hymenoptera -- 5.1.1 General aspects -- 5.1.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 5.1.3 Fossil representatives -- 5.2 Strepsiptera -- 5.2.1 General aspects -- 5.2.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 5.2.3 Fossil representatives -- 6. PLANT PARASITISM (VERSUS PHYTOPHAGY) -- 6.1 General aspects -- 6.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 6.3 Fossil representatives -- 7. INSECTS AS HOSTS -- 7.1 Nematoida -- 7.1.1 General aspects -- 7.1.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 7.1.3 Fossil representatives -- 7.2 Mites -- 7.2.1 General aspects -- 7.2.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 7.2.3 Fossil representatives -- 7.3 Pseudoscorpions -- 7.3.1 General aspects -- 7.3.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 7.3.3 Fossil representatives -- 8. INSECTS AS VECTORS -- 8.1 General aspects -- 8.2 Phylogenetic inference of appearance and molecular estimations of early evolution -- 8.3 Fossil representatives -- 9. CONCLUSION -- 10. OUTLOOK -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Five - Trace Fossil Evidence of Trematode-Bivalve Parasite-Host Interactions in Deep Time -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. TREMATODE-INDUCED SHELL MALFORMATIONS IN LIVING BIVALVE MOLLUSCS -- 3. OCCURRENCES OF TREMATODE-INDUCED PITS IN FOSSIL AND SUBFOSSIL BIVALVES -- 3.1 Taxonomic, temporal and ecological occurrences -- 3.2 Taphonomy and the origin of the trematode-bivalve parasite-host interaction -- 3.3 Trematode-induced malformations as palaeoenvironmental indicators.

4. DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF TREMATODES ON LIVING BIVALVES AND THEIR POTENTIAL EVOLUTIONARY IMPLICATIONS -- 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Six - Fossil Crustaceans as Parasites and Hosts -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. CRUSTACEANS AS HOSTS OF PARASITES -- 2.1 Fossil evidence -- 2.1.1 Isopod parasites in decapod crustaceans -- 2.1.1.1 Modern evidence -- 2.1.1.2 Life cycle and parasitism -- 2.1.1.3 Fossil record -- 2.1.1.4 Quantitative data per fauna -- 2.1.1.5 Infestation patterns through time -- 2.1.1.6 Age -- 2.1.1.7 Biogeography -- 2.1.1.8 On the erection of an ichnotaxon -- 2.1.2 Rhizocephalan barnacles in decapod crustaceans -- 2.1.3 Platyhelminthes in crustaceans -- 2.2 Equivocal fossil evidence -- 2.2.1 Ciliates on ostracods -- 2.3 Modern evidence only -- 2.3.1 Non-crustacean parasites -- 2.3.2 Crustacean parasites -- 3. CRUSTACEANS AS PARASITES OF NON-CRUSTACEAN HOSTS -- 3.1 Fossil evidence -- 3.1.1 Ascothoracidan barnacles in invertebrates -- 3.1.2 Copepods in echinoderms -- 3.1.3 Copepods in fish -- 3.1.4 Gall crabs (Cryptochiridae) in corals -- 3.1.5 Pentastomida -- 3.2 Equivocal fossil evidence -- 3.2.1 Barnacle borings attributed to Acrothoracica in marine invertebrates -- 3.2.2 Barnacles (Pyrgomatidae) in corals -- 3.2.3 Isopods (Cymothooidea) in fishes and squids -- 3.2.4 Crabs (Trapeziidae) and corals -- 3.3 Modern evidence only -- 3.3.1 Copepods -- 3.3.2 Tantulocarida -- 3.3.3 Branchiura -- 3.3.4 Ostracoda -- 3.3.5 Facetotecta -- 3.3.6 Thoracica -- 3.3.7 Malacostraca -- 4. OVERVIEW FOSSIL EVIDENCE AND FUTURE RESEARCH -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Seven - A Prejudiced Review of Ancient Parasites and Their Host Echinoderms: CSI Fossil Record or Just an Excuse fo ... -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. INTERPRETATIONS AND CONFIDENCE -- 2.1 Problems of interpretation -- 2.2 Limits of confidence -- 3. SOME EXAMPLES.

3.1 A coral-crinoid association from the Mississippian (Figure 2) -- 3.2 A growth deformity in a Mississippian crinoid (Figures 2(d-f) and 3) -- 3.3 Epizoobionts infesting a Mississippian crinoid (Figure 4) -- 3.4 Platyceratid gastropods infesting Upper Palaeozoic crinoids (Figures 5 and 6) -- 3.5 Site selectivity of pits in echinoid tests, Upper Cretaceous (Figure 6) -- 4. DISCUSSION -- 5. CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Eight - Differentiating Parasitism and Other Interactions in Fossilized Colonial Organisms -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. COLONIAL ANIMALS -- 3. PUTATIVE PARASITES OF FOSSIL COLONIAL ANIMALS -- 3.1 Recognition of parasitism in fossils -- 3.2 Symbiotic intergrowths and bioclaustrations -- 3.2.1 Caunopores -- 3.2.2 Rugose corals and stromatoporoids -- 3.2.3 Chaetosalpinx and other bioclaustrations -- 3.2.4 Cornulitids and colonial hosts -- 3.2.5 Celleporaria and Culicia -- 3.2.6 Pyrgomatid barnacles -- 3.3 Galls -- 3.4 Borings -- 3.5 Supposed parasites of graptolites -- 4. FOSSIL COLONIAL ANIMALS AS PARASITES -- 5. DISCUSSION -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Nine - Palaeoparasitology - Human Parasites in Ancient Material -- 1. INTRODUCTION - PARASITISM -- 2. HUMANS AND PARASITES -- 3. PALAEOPARASITOLOGY -- 4. RECOMMENDED MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUES FOR MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION IN PALAEOPARASITOLOGY -- 4.1 Light microscopy techniques -- 4.2 Counting remains under the microscope -- 4.2.1 Analysis of sediments -- 4.2.2 Coprolites in mummies -- 4.3 Molecular techniques applied to palaeoparasitology -- 4.3.1 Molecular diagnosis -- 5. PARASITE FINDS IN HUMAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS -- 5.1 Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura -- 5.2 Hookworms -- 5.3 Enterobius vermicularis -- 5.4 Diphyllobothrium sp. -- 6. OTHER PARASITES: PARASITES OF ANIMALS FOUND IN HUMAN COPROLITES -- PARASITES IN PREHISTORIC ASIA.

7. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF TRYPANOSOMATIDS IN HUMANS AND THE PARADIGM SHIFT FROM RESULTS IN PALAEOPARASITOLOGY.

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