Fair Progress? : Economic Mobility Across Generations Around the World.

Front Cover -- Contents -- Foreword -- Acknowledgments -- Abbreviations -- Overview -- Introduction -- Intergenerational Mobility in Education around the World -- Pathways to Intergenerational Mobility in Education and Income -- Why Does Intergenerational Mobility Matter? -- Policy Drivers to Improve Intergenerational Mobility -- Conclusion: A Few Principles for IGM-Enhancing Policies -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 1 Economic Mobility across Generations: Why It Matters -- What Is Meant by Intergenerational Mobility? -- Why Is Mobility across Generations Important? -- Measuring Economic Mobility Globally with Education -- A Road Map of the Report -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 2 Concepts of Intergenerational Mobility, Data, and Methodology -- Measures of Intergenerational Mobility in Education -- Data for Estimating Intergenerational Mobility in Education Worldwide -- Methodological Choices -- Measuring Intergenerational Mobility for Developing Economies-A Pragmatic Approach -- Annex 2A -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 3 Intergenerational Mobility in Education around the World -- Fair Progress? Trends and Patterns in Educational Mobility -- Greater Mobility Is Associated with Better Economic Outcomes -- Mobility in Some of the World's Largest Developing Economies -- Mobility across Multiple Generations: Do Grandparents Matter? -- What Do Today's Enrollments Suggest about Intergenerational Mobility of the Next Generation? -- Conclusions and a Summary of Key Findings -- Annex 3A -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 4 Pathways to Intergenerational Mobility in Education and Income -- Relative Mobility in Income around the World -- Income Mobility and Educational Mobility: How They Are Related -- Why Incomes Persist from One Generation to the Next -- Equality of Opportunity as a Pathway to Greater IGM.

Inequality of Opportunity Emerges at Various Stages of the Life Cycle -- Equalizing Opportunities at Different Life Stages-Chapters 5 and 6 -- Annex 4A -- The Relationship between IGM in Earnings and IGM in Education -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 5 Equalizing Opportunities for Children to Achieve Fair Progress -- Inequality of Opportunity among Children in the Developing World -- The Importance of Improving the Early Life Environment -- Reducing Opportunity Gaps in Education Can Improve Mobility -- Breaking the Cycle of Low Aspirations and Low Mobility -- The Importance of Neighborhoods and Local Environments -- Conclusion -- Annex 5A -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 6 Promoting Intergenerational Mobility: The Role of Factor Markets and Policies -- Labor Markets and Intergenerational Mobility -- Capital Markets as a Barrier to Intergenerational Mobility -- Economic Transformation and Intergenerational Mobility -- The Role of Fiscal Policy in Promoting Intergenerational Mobility -- Why Are Mobility-Enhancing Policies Not Adopted or Implemented Effectively Often Enough? -- Concluding Thoughts: Policy Drivers of Intergenerational Mobility -- Notes -- References -- Boxes -- Box 1.1 Two concepts of intergenerational mobility -- Box 1.2 A theory of intergenerational mobility and the relationship with inequality -- Box 1.3 Higher relative mobility and economic growth can reinforce each other in a virtuous cycle -- Box 1.4 The policy preferences of individuals can be shaped by perceptions of IGM -- Box 2.1 Checking for co-residency bias -- Box 2.2 Converting categories of education to years of schooling and vice versa -- Box 3.1 Key findings on relative mobility are unchanged if correlation is used to measure persistence -- Box 3.2 Trends in absolute mobility using alternate measures.

Box 3.3 Average mobility in fragility, conflict, and violence-affected economies is lower than the developing economy average -- Box 3.4 Rough estimates of absolute upward mobility among the 1990s cohort -- Box 4.1 Estimating the relationship between IGM in earnings and IGM in education -- Box 4.2 Two common measures of inequality of opportunity used in this report -- Box 4.3 Understanding inequality of opportunity helps identify the barriers to IGM in income in South Africa -- Box 4.4 As economies get richer, relative IGM in education may rise or decline depending on the relative strength of opposing forces -- Box 5.1 Maternal disadvantages adversely affect long-term outcomes of the next generation -- Box 5.2 Evidence on long-term impacts of nutritional and health interventions in early childhood -- Box 5.3 Long-term impacts of early childhood interventions to improve cognitive and noncognitive skills -- Box 5.4 Reforms that reduce tracking in the education system might promote equality of opportunity -- Box 5.5 A randomized experiment with free secondary education in Ghana -- Box 5.6 Parental aspirations and social environment are crucial to the aspirations and education of children -- Box 5.7 Limited evidence to link direct interventions to raise aspirations with educational outcomes -- Box 5.8 Children who grow up in areas with more inventors are more likely to become inventors -- Box 6.1 Social networks compound the effects of weak job creation on intergenerational mobility in the Middle East and North Africa -- Box 6.2 Discrimination in labor markets can persist: Two examples -- Box 6.3 Why gender disparities in labor markets persist across generations -- Box 6.4 Unequal inheritance rights among women can pose an additional barrier to mobility among girls.

Box 6.5 In a context of imperfect capital markets, redistributive policies may be efficiency enhancing -- Box 6.6 The design of fiscal policy can affect intergenerational mobility in multiple ways -- Box 6.7 Large investments in early childhood development can raise intergenerational mobility in a general equilibrium setting -- Box 6.8 Cash transfers can have large immediate benefits, even on psychological well-being -- Box 6.9 Implementing progressive direct taxes in low-income economies with low capacity -- Box 6.10 A proposal to use a progressive capital receipt tax to fund a grant for all young adults -- Box 6.11 Evidence to inform the design of mobility-enhancing policies can come from a variety of sources -- Box 6.12 Power asymmetries can undermine the choice of mobility-promoting policies and their effectiveness -- Box 6.13 Identifying policies that matter for mobility -- Figures -- Figure O.1 Relative IGMs in education and income are correlated, but imperfectly -- Figure O.2 Changes in absolute and relative mobility over time, developing and high-income economies -- Figure O.3 Share of population in different cohorts with tertiary education -- Figure O.4 Absolute mobility and relative mobility are correlated, but with many outliers -- Figure O.5 Absolute mobility and relative mobility, averages by region and income group -- Figure O.6 Share of individuals in the 1980s cohort who are born into the bottom half and who have reached the top quartile in education -- Figure O.7 Intergenerational persistence in education among children -- Figure O.8 Greater inequality of opportunity is associated with lower relative mobility in education -- Figure O.9 Public spending on education is higher for richer economies, and associated with higher relative mobility in education -- Figure O.10 Intergenerational mobility versus GDP per capita.

Figure O.11 Higher relative IGM in income is associated with lower income inequality -- Figure O.12 Higher mobility is associated with lower rates of stunting -- Figure O.13 When labor force participation is higher, relative IGMs in income and education are more closely associated with one another -- Figure O.14 Economies with higher educational mobility tend to have lower levels of spatial segregation by education -- Figure B1.1.1 Intergenerational Mobility -- Figure 1.1 Low relative IGM is both a cause and consequence of inequality -- Figure 1.2 Relative IGM in education and income are correlated, but imperfectly -- Figure B2.1.1 Comparing co-residents with all respondents between ages 21 and 25 years -- Figure 2A.1 Trends in absolute mobility based on different measures -- Figure 2A.2 Comparing relative mobility measures -- Figure 2A.3 Comparing methods to break ties -- Figure 3.1 Share of population with different educational attainment -- Figure 3.2 Changes in absolute and relative intergenerational mobility over time, developing and high-income economies -- Figure B3.1.1 Comparing relative mobility measures -- Figure B3.2.1 Trends in absolute mobility based on different measures -- Figure 3.3 Changes in intergenerational mobility, by region -- Figure 3.4 Absolute upward mobility and relative mobility among the 1980s cohort, averages by region and income group -- Figure B3.3.1 Mobility is consistently lower in seven fragility, conflict, and violence-affected economies than the developing-economy average -- Figure 3.5 Absolute mobility and relative mobility are correlated, but with many outliers -- Figure 3.6 Share of individuals in the 1980s cohort who are born into the bottom half and who have reached the top quartile -- Figure 3.7 Movement from the bottom to the top.

Figure 3.8 Intergenerational poverty: Probability that a child with parents in the bottom half stays there.

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