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Experimenting on a Small Planet : A History of Scientific Discoveries, a Future of Climate Change and Global Warming.

By: Material type: TextTextPublisher: Cham : Springer International Publishing AG, 2016Copyright date: ©2016Edition: 2nd edDescription: 1 online resource (834 pages)Content type:
  • text
Media type:
  • computer
Carrier type:
  • online resource
ISBN:
  • 9783319274041
Subject(s): Genre/Form: Additional physical formats: Print version:: Experimenting on a Small PlanetDDC classification:
  • 551.6
LOC classification:
  • GE1-350
Online resources:
Contents:
Intro -- Foreword -- Prologue -- Acknowledgments -- Contents -- About the Cover -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1ƒLeningrad-1982 -- 1.2ƒ'Global Warming' or 'Global Weirding' -- 1.3ƒMy Background -- 1.4ƒWhat Is Science? -- 1.5ƒThe Observational Sciences -- 1.6ƒThe Complexity of Nature -- 1.7ƒSummary -- 2 The Language of Science -- 2.1ƒNumbers and Symbols -- 2.2ƒArithmetic, Algebra, and Calculus -- 2.3ƒOrders of Magnitude and Exponents -- 2.4ƒLogarithms -- 2.5ƒLogarithms and Scales with Bases Other than 10 -- 2.6ƒEarthquake Scales -- 2.7ƒThe Beaufort Wind Force Scale -- 2.8ƒExtending the Beaufort Scale to Cyclonic Storms -- 2.9ƒCalendars and Time -- 2.10ƒSummary -- 3 Applying Mathematics to Problems -- 3.1ƒMeasures and Weights -- 3.2ƒThe Nautical Mile -- 3.3ƒThe Metric System -- 3.4ƒTemperature -- 3.5ƒPrecisely Defining Some Words You Already Know -- 3.6ƒLocating Things -- 3.7ƒLatitude and Longitude -- 3.8ƒMap Projections -- 3.9ƒTrigonometry -- 3.10ƒCircles and Angular Velocity -- 3.11ƒCentripetal and Centrifugal Forces -- 3.12ƒExponential Growth and Decay -- 3.13ƒThe Logistic Equation -- 3.14ƒGraphs -- 3.15ƒStatistics -- 3.16ƒSummary -- 4 Geologic Time -- 4.1ƒAge of the Earth-4004 BCE, or Older? -- 4.2ƒThe Discovery of the Depths of Time-Eternity -- 4.3ƒGeologic Time Punctuated by Revolutions -- 4.4ƒCatastrophism Replaced by Imperceptibly Slow Gradual Change -- 4.5ƒThe Development of the Geological Time Scale -- 4.6ƒThe Discovery of the Ice Age -- 4.7ƒThe Discovery of Past Warm Polar Regions -- 4.8ƒThrowing a Monkey Wrench into Explaining Climate Change -- 4.9ƒ'Crustal Mobility' to the Rescue -- 4.10ƒThe Return of Catastrophism and the Idea of Rapid Change -- 4.11ƒThe Nature of the Geologic Record -- 4.12ƒThe Great Extinctions and Their Causes -- 4.13ƒSummary -- 5 Putting Numbers on Geologic Ages -- 5.1ƒ1788-An Abyss of Time of Unknown Dimensions.
5.2ƒ1863-Physics Comes to the Rescue-Earth Is not More Than 100 Million Years Old -- 5.3ƒWhat We Now Know About Heat from Earth's Interior -- 5.4ƒSome Helpful Background In Understanding 19th Century Chemistry -- 5.5ƒAtomic Weight, Atomic Mass, Isotopes, Relative Atomic Mass, Standard Atomic Weight-A Confusing Plethora of Terms -- 5.6ƒ1895-1913-The Worlds of Physics and Chemistry Turned Upside Down -- 5.7ƒHenri Becquerel and the Curies -- 5.8ƒNonconformists and the British Universities Open to All -- 5.9ƒThe Discovery of Electrons, Alpha-Rays, and Beta-Rays -- 5.10ƒThe Discovery of Radioactive Decay Series, Exponential Decay Rates, and Secular Equilibrium -- 5.11ƒThe Mystery of the Decay Series Explained by Isotopes -- 5.12ƒThe Discovery that Radioactive Decay Series Might Be Used to Determine the Age of Rocks -- 5.13ƒThe Discovery of Stable Isotopes -- 5.14ƒRethinking the Structure of the Atom -- 5.15ƒFrom Science to Science Fiction -- 5.16ƒThe Discovery of Protons and Neutrons -- 5.17ƒArthur Holmes and the Age of the Earth -- 5.18ƒThe Development of a Numerical Geological Timescale -- 5.19ƒSummary -- 6 Documenting Past Climate Change -- 6.1ƒWhat Is 'Climate'? -- 6.2ƒA Brief Overview of Earth's Climate History -- 6.3ƒThe Cenozoic Climate 'Deterioration' -- 6.4ƒFrom Ages to Process Rates -- 6.5ƒRadiometric Age Dating in the Mid-20th Century -- 6.6ƒPotassium-Argon Dating -- 6.7ƒReversals of Earth's Magnetic Field -- 6.8ƒFission Track Dating -- 6.9ƒAstronomical Dating -- 6.10ƒTritium, Carbon-14 and Beryllium-10 -- 6.11ƒThe Human Acceleration of Natural Process Rates -- 6.12ƒThe Present Climate in Its Geologic Context -- 6.13ƒSteady State Versus Non-steady State -- 6.14ƒFeedbacks -- 6.15ƒSummary -- 7 The Nature of Energy Received from the Sun-The Analogies with Water Waves and Sound -- 7.1ƒWater Waves -- 7.2ƒSpecial Water Waves-Tides and Tsunamis.
7.3ƒWave Energy, Refraction and Reflection -- 7.4ƒSound Waves -- 7.5ƒSound Waves and Music -- 7.6ƒMeasuring the Speed of Sound in Air -- 7.7ƒMeasuring the Speed of Sound in Water -- 7.8ƒThe Practical Use of Sound in Water -- 7.9ƒSummary -- 8 The Nature of Energy Received from the Sun-Figuring Out What Light Really Is -- 8.1ƒEarly Ideas About Light -- 8.2ƒRefraction of Light -- 8.3ƒMeasuring the Speed of Light -- 8.4ƒThe Discovery of Double Refraction or 'Birefringence' -- 8.5ƒInvestigating the Dispersion of Light -- 8.6ƒFiguring Out the Wavelengths of Different Colors of Light -- 8.7ƒDiffraction -- 8.8ƒPolarization of Light -- 8.9ƒEureka!-Light Is Electromagnetic Waves -- 8.10ƒA Review of the Discovery of the Invisible Parts of the Electromagnetic Spectrum -- 8.11ƒThe Demise of the 'Luminiferous æther' -- 8.12ƒSummary -- 9 Exploring the Electromagnetic Spectrum -- 9.1ƒSpectra and Spectral Lines -- 9.2ƒThe Discovery of Helium-First in the Sun, then on Earth -- 9.3ƒThe Discovery That Spectral Lines Are Mathematically Related -- 9.4ƒHeinrich Hertz's Confirmation of Maxwell's Ideas -- 9.5ƒMarconi Makes the Electromagnetic Spectrum a Tool for Civilization -- 9.6ƒHuman Use of the Electromagnetic Spectrum for Communication, Locating Objects, and Cooking -- 9.7ƒSummary -- 10 The Origins of Climate Science-The Idea of Energy Balance -- 10.1ƒWhat Is Heat? -- 10.2ƒThermodynamics -- 10.3ƒThe Laws of Thermodynamics -- 10.4ƒThe Discovery of Greenhouse Gases -- 10.5ƒKirchhoff's 'Black Body' -- 10.6ƒStefan's Fourth Power Law -- 10.7ƒBlack Body Radiation -- 10.8ƒSummary -- 11 The Climate System -- 11.1ƒAn Introduction to the Climate System -- 11.2ƒInsolation-The Incoming Energy from the Sun -- 11.3ƒAlbedo-The Reflection of Incoming Energy Back into Space -- 11.4ƒReradiation-How the Earth Radiates Energy Back into Space -- 11.5ƒThe Chaotic Nature of the Weather.
11.6ƒThe Earthly Components of the Climate System: Air, Earth, Ice, and Water -- 11.7ƒThe Atmosphere -- 11.8ƒThe Hydrosphere -- 11.9ƒThe Cryosphere -- 11.10ƒThe Land -- 11.11ƒClassifying Climatic Regions -- 11.12ƒUncertainties in the Climate Scheme -- 11.13ƒSummary -- 12 What's at the Bottom of Alice's Rabbit Hole -- 12.1ƒMax Planck and the Solution to the Black Body Problem -- 12.2ƒThe Photoelectric Effect -- 12.3ƒThe Bohr Atom -- 12.4ƒImplications of the Bohr Model for the Periodic Table of the Elements -- 12.5ƒThe Zeeman Effect -- 12.6ƒTrying to Make Sense of the Periodic Table -- 12.7ƒThe Second Quantum Revolution -- 12.8ƒThe Discovery of Nuclear Fission -- 12.9ƒMolecular Motions -- 12.10ƒSummary -- 13 Energy From the Sun-Long-term Variations -- 13.1ƒThe Faint Young Sun Paradox -- 13.2ƒThe Energy Flux from the Sun -- 13.3ƒThe Orbital Cycles -- 13.4ƒThe Rise and Fall of the Orbital Theory of Climate Change -- 13.5ƒThe Resurrection of the Orbital Theory -- 13.6ƒCorrecting the Age Scale -- Filling in the Details to Prove the Theory -- 13.7ƒThe Discovery that Milankovitch Orbital Cycles Have Affected Much of Earth History -- 13.8ƒSummary -- 14 Solar Variability and Cosmic Rays -- 14.1ƒSolar Variability -- 14.2ƒThe Solar Wind -- 14.3ƒSolar Storms and Space Weather -- 14.4ƒThe Solar Neutrino Problem -- 14.5ƒThe Ultraviolet Radiation -- 14.6ƒCosmic Rays -- 14.7ƒA Digression into the World of Particle Physics -- 14.8ƒHow Cosmic Rays Interact with Earth's Atmosphere -- 14.9ƒCarbon-14 -- 14.10ƒBeryllium-10 -- 14.11ƒCosmic Rays and Climate -- 14.12ƒSummary -- 15 Albedo -- 15.1ƒAlbedo of Planet Earth -- 15.2ƒClouds -- 15.3ƒCould Cloudiness Be a Global Thermostat? -- 15.4ƒVolcanic Ash and Climate Change -- 15.5ƒAerosols -- 15.6ƒAlbedo During the Last Glacial Maximum -- 15.7ƒChanging the Planetary Albedo to Counteract Greenhouse Warming -- 15.8ƒSummary.
16 Air -- 16.1ƒThe Nature of Air -- 16.2ƒThe Velocity of Air Molecules -- 16.3ƒOther Molecular Motions -- 16.4ƒThe Other Major Component of Air-Photons -- 16.5ƒIonization -- 16.6ƒThe Scattering of Light -- 16.7ƒAbsorption of the Infrared Wavelengths -- 16.8ƒOther Components of Air: Subatomic Particles -- 16.9ƒSummary -- 17 HOH-The Keystone of Earth's Climate -- 17.1ƒSome History -- 17.2ƒWhy Is HOH so Strange? -- 17.3ƒThe Hydrologic Cycle -- 17.4ƒVapor -- 17.5ƒPure Water -- 17.6ƒNatural Water -- 17.7ƒWater-Density and Specific Volume -- 17.8ƒWater-Surface Tension -- 17.9ƒIce -- 17.10ƒEarth's Ice -- 17.11ƒHow Ice Forms from Fresh Water and from Seawater -- 17.12ƒSnow and Ice on Land -- 17.13ƒIce Cores -- 17.14ƒIce as Earth's Climate Stabilizer -- 17.15ƒSummary -- 18 The Atmosphere -- 18.1ƒAtmospheric Pressure -- 18.2ƒThe Structure of the Atmosphere -- 18.3ƒThe Troposphere -- 18.4ƒThe Stratosphere -- 18.5ƒThe Mesosphere -- 18.6ƒThe Thermosphere -- 18.7ƒThe Exosphere -- 18.8ƒThe Magnetosphere -- 18.9ƒThe Ionosphere -- 18.10ƒThe Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect -- 18.11ƒThe Distribution of Gases in the Atmosphere -- 18.12ƒThe Overall Effect of the Atmosphere on Solar Irradiance -- 18.13ƒThe Effects of Anthropogenic Atmospheric Pollution -- 18.14ƒSummary -- 19 Oxygen and Ozone-Products and Protectors of Life -- 19.1ƒDiatomic Oxygen-O2-'Oxygen' -- 19.2ƒTriatomic Oxygen-O3-Ozone -- 19.3ƒThe Oxygen-Ozone-Ultraviolet Connection -- 19.4ƒThe Oxygen-Ozone-Ultraviolet Conundrum -- 19.5ƒThe Human Interference with Ozone -- 19.6ƒOzone-The Greenhouse Gas -- 19.7ƒSummary -- 20 Water Vapor-The Major Greenhouse Gas -- 20.1ƒThe Behavior of Dry Air -- 20.2ƒThe Behavior of Wet Air -- 20.3ƒWhat Controls Atmospheric Water Vapor? -- 20.4ƒAnthropogenic Effects -- 20.5ƒThe Changing Area of Exposed Water Surface -- 20.6ƒSummary -- 21 Carbon Dioxide.
21.1ƒCarbon Dioxide as a Greenhouse Gas.
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Intro -- Foreword -- Prologue -- Acknowledgments -- Contents -- About the Cover -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1ƒLeningrad-1982 -- 1.2ƒ'Global Warming' or 'Global Weirding' -- 1.3ƒMy Background -- 1.4ƒWhat Is Science? -- 1.5ƒThe Observational Sciences -- 1.6ƒThe Complexity of Nature -- 1.7ƒSummary -- 2 The Language of Science -- 2.1ƒNumbers and Symbols -- 2.2ƒArithmetic, Algebra, and Calculus -- 2.3ƒOrders of Magnitude and Exponents -- 2.4ƒLogarithms -- 2.5ƒLogarithms and Scales with Bases Other than 10 -- 2.6ƒEarthquake Scales -- 2.7ƒThe Beaufort Wind Force Scale -- 2.8ƒExtending the Beaufort Scale to Cyclonic Storms -- 2.9ƒCalendars and Time -- 2.10ƒSummary -- 3 Applying Mathematics to Problems -- 3.1ƒMeasures and Weights -- 3.2ƒThe Nautical Mile -- 3.3ƒThe Metric System -- 3.4ƒTemperature -- 3.5ƒPrecisely Defining Some Words You Already Know -- 3.6ƒLocating Things -- 3.7ƒLatitude and Longitude -- 3.8ƒMap Projections -- 3.9ƒTrigonometry -- 3.10ƒCircles and Angular Velocity -- 3.11ƒCentripetal and Centrifugal Forces -- 3.12ƒExponential Growth and Decay -- 3.13ƒThe Logistic Equation -- 3.14ƒGraphs -- 3.15ƒStatistics -- 3.16ƒSummary -- 4 Geologic Time -- 4.1ƒAge of the Earth-4004 BCE, or Older? -- 4.2ƒThe Discovery of the Depths of Time-Eternity -- 4.3ƒGeologic Time Punctuated by Revolutions -- 4.4ƒCatastrophism Replaced by Imperceptibly Slow Gradual Change -- 4.5ƒThe Development of the Geological Time Scale -- 4.6ƒThe Discovery of the Ice Age -- 4.7ƒThe Discovery of Past Warm Polar Regions -- 4.8ƒThrowing a Monkey Wrench into Explaining Climate Change -- 4.9ƒ'Crustal Mobility' to the Rescue -- 4.10ƒThe Return of Catastrophism and the Idea of Rapid Change -- 4.11ƒThe Nature of the Geologic Record -- 4.12ƒThe Great Extinctions and Their Causes -- 4.13ƒSummary -- 5 Putting Numbers on Geologic Ages -- 5.1ƒ1788-An Abyss of Time of Unknown Dimensions.

5.2ƒ1863-Physics Comes to the Rescue-Earth Is not More Than 100 Million Years Old -- 5.3ƒWhat We Now Know About Heat from Earth's Interior -- 5.4ƒSome Helpful Background In Understanding 19th Century Chemistry -- 5.5ƒAtomic Weight, Atomic Mass, Isotopes, Relative Atomic Mass, Standard Atomic Weight-A Confusing Plethora of Terms -- 5.6ƒ1895-1913-The Worlds of Physics and Chemistry Turned Upside Down -- 5.7ƒHenri Becquerel and the Curies -- 5.8ƒNonconformists and the British Universities Open to All -- 5.9ƒThe Discovery of Electrons, Alpha-Rays, and Beta-Rays -- 5.10ƒThe Discovery of Radioactive Decay Series, Exponential Decay Rates, and Secular Equilibrium -- 5.11ƒThe Mystery of the Decay Series Explained by Isotopes -- 5.12ƒThe Discovery that Radioactive Decay Series Might Be Used to Determine the Age of Rocks -- 5.13ƒThe Discovery of Stable Isotopes -- 5.14ƒRethinking the Structure of the Atom -- 5.15ƒFrom Science to Science Fiction -- 5.16ƒThe Discovery of Protons and Neutrons -- 5.17ƒArthur Holmes and the Age of the Earth -- 5.18ƒThe Development of a Numerical Geological Timescale -- 5.19ƒSummary -- 6 Documenting Past Climate Change -- 6.1ƒWhat Is 'Climate'? -- 6.2ƒA Brief Overview of Earth's Climate History -- 6.3ƒThe Cenozoic Climate 'Deterioration' -- 6.4ƒFrom Ages to Process Rates -- 6.5ƒRadiometric Age Dating in the Mid-20th Century -- 6.6ƒPotassium-Argon Dating -- 6.7ƒReversals of Earth's Magnetic Field -- 6.8ƒFission Track Dating -- 6.9ƒAstronomical Dating -- 6.10ƒTritium, Carbon-14 and Beryllium-10 -- 6.11ƒThe Human Acceleration of Natural Process Rates -- 6.12ƒThe Present Climate in Its Geologic Context -- 6.13ƒSteady State Versus Non-steady State -- 6.14ƒFeedbacks -- 6.15ƒSummary -- 7 The Nature of Energy Received from the Sun-The Analogies with Water Waves and Sound -- 7.1ƒWater Waves -- 7.2ƒSpecial Water Waves-Tides and Tsunamis.

7.3ƒWave Energy, Refraction and Reflection -- 7.4ƒSound Waves -- 7.5ƒSound Waves and Music -- 7.6ƒMeasuring the Speed of Sound in Air -- 7.7ƒMeasuring the Speed of Sound in Water -- 7.8ƒThe Practical Use of Sound in Water -- 7.9ƒSummary -- 8 The Nature of Energy Received from the Sun-Figuring Out What Light Really Is -- 8.1ƒEarly Ideas About Light -- 8.2ƒRefraction of Light -- 8.3ƒMeasuring the Speed of Light -- 8.4ƒThe Discovery of Double Refraction or 'Birefringence' -- 8.5ƒInvestigating the Dispersion of Light -- 8.6ƒFiguring Out the Wavelengths of Different Colors of Light -- 8.7ƒDiffraction -- 8.8ƒPolarization of Light -- 8.9ƒEureka!-Light Is Electromagnetic Waves -- 8.10ƒA Review of the Discovery of the Invisible Parts of the Electromagnetic Spectrum -- 8.11ƒThe Demise of the 'Luminiferous æther' -- 8.12ƒSummary -- 9 Exploring the Electromagnetic Spectrum -- 9.1ƒSpectra and Spectral Lines -- 9.2ƒThe Discovery of Helium-First in the Sun, then on Earth -- 9.3ƒThe Discovery That Spectral Lines Are Mathematically Related -- 9.4ƒHeinrich Hertz's Confirmation of Maxwell's Ideas -- 9.5ƒMarconi Makes the Electromagnetic Spectrum a Tool for Civilization -- 9.6ƒHuman Use of the Electromagnetic Spectrum for Communication, Locating Objects, and Cooking -- 9.7ƒSummary -- 10 The Origins of Climate Science-The Idea of Energy Balance -- 10.1ƒWhat Is Heat? -- 10.2ƒThermodynamics -- 10.3ƒThe Laws of Thermodynamics -- 10.4ƒThe Discovery of Greenhouse Gases -- 10.5ƒKirchhoff's 'Black Body' -- 10.6ƒStefan's Fourth Power Law -- 10.7ƒBlack Body Radiation -- 10.8ƒSummary -- 11 The Climate System -- 11.1ƒAn Introduction to the Climate System -- 11.2ƒInsolation-The Incoming Energy from the Sun -- 11.3ƒAlbedo-The Reflection of Incoming Energy Back into Space -- 11.4ƒReradiation-How the Earth Radiates Energy Back into Space -- 11.5ƒThe Chaotic Nature of the Weather.

11.6ƒThe Earthly Components of the Climate System: Air, Earth, Ice, and Water -- 11.7ƒThe Atmosphere -- 11.8ƒThe Hydrosphere -- 11.9ƒThe Cryosphere -- 11.10ƒThe Land -- 11.11ƒClassifying Climatic Regions -- 11.12ƒUncertainties in the Climate Scheme -- 11.13ƒSummary -- 12 What's at the Bottom of Alice's Rabbit Hole -- 12.1ƒMax Planck and the Solution to the Black Body Problem -- 12.2ƒThe Photoelectric Effect -- 12.3ƒThe Bohr Atom -- 12.4ƒImplications of the Bohr Model for the Periodic Table of the Elements -- 12.5ƒThe Zeeman Effect -- 12.6ƒTrying to Make Sense of the Periodic Table -- 12.7ƒThe Second Quantum Revolution -- 12.8ƒThe Discovery of Nuclear Fission -- 12.9ƒMolecular Motions -- 12.10ƒSummary -- 13 Energy From the Sun-Long-term Variations -- 13.1ƒThe Faint Young Sun Paradox -- 13.2ƒThe Energy Flux from the Sun -- 13.3ƒThe Orbital Cycles -- 13.4ƒThe Rise and Fall of the Orbital Theory of Climate Change -- 13.5ƒThe Resurrection of the Orbital Theory -- 13.6ƒCorrecting the Age Scale -- Filling in the Details to Prove the Theory -- 13.7ƒThe Discovery that Milankovitch Orbital Cycles Have Affected Much of Earth History -- 13.8ƒSummary -- 14 Solar Variability and Cosmic Rays -- 14.1ƒSolar Variability -- 14.2ƒThe Solar Wind -- 14.3ƒSolar Storms and Space Weather -- 14.4ƒThe Solar Neutrino Problem -- 14.5ƒThe Ultraviolet Radiation -- 14.6ƒCosmic Rays -- 14.7ƒA Digression into the World of Particle Physics -- 14.8ƒHow Cosmic Rays Interact with Earth's Atmosphere -- 14.9ƒCarbon-14 -- 14.10ƒBeryllium-10 -- 14.11ƒCosmic Rays and Climate -- 14.12ƒSummary -- 15 Albedo -- 15.1ƒAlbedo of Planet Earth -- 15.2ƒClouds -- 15.3ƒCould Cloudiness Be a Global Thermostat? -- 15.4ƒVolcanic Ash and Climate Change -- 15.5ƒAerosols -- 15.6ƒAlbedo During the Last Glacial Maximum -- 15.7ƒChanging the Planetary Albedo to Counteract Greenhouse Warming -- 15.8ƒSummary.

16 Air -- 16.1ƒThe Nature of Air -- 16.2ƒThe Velocity of Air Molecules -- 16.3ƒOther Molecular Motions -- 16.4ƒThe Other Major Component of Air-Photons -- 16.5ƒIonization -- 16.6ƒThe Scattering of Light -- 16.7ƒAbsorption of the Infrared Wavelengths -- 16.8ƒOther Components of Air: Subatomic Particles -- 16.9ƒSummary -- 17 HOH-The Keystone of Earth's Climate -- 17.1ƒSome History -- 17.2ƒWhy Is HOH so Strange? -- 17.3ƒThe Hydrologic Cycle -- 17.4ƒVapor -- 17.5ƒPure Water -- 17.6ƒNatural Water -- 17.7ƒWater-Density and Specific Volume -- 17.8ƒWater-Surface Tension -- 17.9ƒIce -- 17.10ƒEarth's Ice -- 17.11ƒHow Ice Forms from Fresh Water and from Seawater -- 17.12ƒSnow and Ice on Land -- 17.13ƒIce Cores -- 17.14ƒIce as Earth's Climate Stabilizer -- 17.15ƒSummary -- 18 The Atmosphere -- 18.1ƒAtmospheric Pressure -- 18.2ƒThe Structure of the Atmosphere -- 18.3ƒThe Troposphere -- 18.4ƒThe Stratosphere -- 18.5ƒThe Mesosphere -- 18.6ƒThe Thermosphere -- 18.7ƒThe Exosphere -- 18.8ƒThe Magnetosphere -- 18.9ƒThe Ionosphere -- 18.10ƒThe Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect -- 18.11ƒThe Distribution of Gases in the Atmosphere -- 18.12ƒThe Overall Effect of the Atmosphere on Solar Irradiance -- 18.13ƒThe Effects of Anthropogenic Atmospheric Pollution -- 18.14ƒSummary -- 19 Oxygen and Ozone-Products and Protectors of Life -- 19.1ƒDiatomic Oxygen-O2-'Oxygen' -- 19.2ƒTriatomic Oxygen-O3-Ozone -- 19.3ƒThe Oxygen-Ozone-Ultraviolet Connection -- 19.4ƒThe Oxygen-Ozone-Ultraviolet Conundrum -- 19.5ƒThe Human Interference with Ozone -- 19.6ƒOzone-The Greenhouse Gas -- 19.7ƒSummary -- 20 Water Vapor-The Major Greenhouse Gas -- 20.1ƒThe Behavior of Dry Air -- 20.2ƒThe Behavior of Wet Air -- 20.3ƒWhat Controls Atmospheric Water Vapor? -- 20.4ƒAnthropogenic Effects -- 20.5ƒThe Changing Area of Exposed Water Surface -- 20.6ƒSummary -- 21 Carbon Dioxide.

21.1ƒCarbon Dioxide as a Greenhouse Gas.

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