Muscle Injuries in Sports.

Muscle Injuries in Sports -- Title Page -- Copyright -- Dedication -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contributors -- Abbreviations -- Contents -- 1 Functional Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle -- Structure and Function of Skeletal Muscle and the Locomotor System -- Anatomic Terms in Skeletal Muscle -- Nomenclature -- Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types -- Functional Muscle Compartments as a Structural Principle -- Muscle Compartments and Their Nerve and Vascular Supply Relative to Injury Risks in Sports -- Trunk Muscles -- Muscles of the Anterior and Posterior Arm Compartments -- Muscles of the Hip, Buttocks, and Leg -- Intermuscular Septum, Rectus Sheath, and Iliotibial Tract -- Skeletal Muscles and Their Typical Motion Patterns -- Pennation Angle or Angulation of Fascicles in Skeletal Muscle -- Anatomic versus Physiological Profile of Skeletal Muscle -- Isotonic versus Isometric Contraction -- Functional Histology of Muscle Tissue -- Smooth Muscle -- Striated Muscle -- Heart Muscle -- Skeletal Muscle -- Molecular Architecture of Skeletal Muscle Fibers (Sarcomeres) -- Actin and Myosin Filaments -- Striations -- Sarcoplasmic Reticulum and Tubules -- Regulatory Proteins, Tropomyosin, and Troponin -- Accessory Proteins Titin and Nebulin -- Muscle Fatigue -- Satellite Cells (Emergency Cells) -- Microvasculature and Capillaries -- Ischemia -- Connective Tissue (Myofascial System) -- Principles of Skeletal Muscle Architecture -- Skeletal Muscle -- Muscle Fascia and Intermuscular Septum -- Secondary and Primary Bundles (Fascicles) -- Muscle Fibers -- Muscle Tendons -- Tendon Architecture -- Tendon Function -- Muscle-Tendon Contacts (Myotendinous Junction) -- Tendon-Bone Junction -- Support Structures in Skeletal Muscle -- Tendon Sheaths, Bursa, and Retinaculum -- Sesamoids -- Active versus Passive Muscle Insufficiency -- Innervation of Skeletal Muscle.

Motor Units and Neuromuscular Synapses -- Motor End Plate-Neuromuscular Junction -- Neuromuscular Spindle -- Architecture -- Neuromuscular Spindle Density -- Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO) -- Architecture -- Function of GTOs -- Functional Anatomic Principles of Muscle Reflexes -- Reflex Arcs -- Rhythmic Movements in Sports -- The Innervated Locomotor Apparatus -- Brain and Spinal Cord -- Plexuses and Peripheral Nerves -- Plexus -- Spinal Syndromes -- Reference Muscles and Myotomes -- 2 Basic Physiology and Aspects of Exercise -- Basic Physiology -- Sarcomere, Muscle Force, and Muscle Shortening -- Basic Principles of Muscular Contraction and its Regulation -- Motor Unit -- Neuromuscular End plate (Motor End plate) -- Signal Transduction from the Motor Neuron to Skeletal Muscle Fibers -- Initiating a Contraction (Electromechanical Coupling) -- Production of Motile Forces by the Myosin Heads -- Relaxation of Muscle -- Time Course of Muscular Contraction (Mechanogram) -- Gradation of Muscle Force during Voluntary Movements -- Types of Muscular Contraction -- Passive Length-Tension Curve -- Isotonic Contraction -- Isometric Contraction -- Auxotonic Contraction -- Afterloaded Contraction and Contraction against a Stop -- Muscular Work -- Relationship between Lifted Load and Shortening Velocity of Muscle -- Concentric and Eccentric Contractions -- Adjusting Shortening Velocity to Changing Demands -- Neuromuscular Control Mechanisms -- Hierarchical Organization of Voluntary Movements -- Regulation of Muscle Length (Stretch Reflex) -- Force and Tension Control in Muscles (Autogenous Inhibition) -- Rhythmic Movement Patterns -- Facilitation and Inhibition of Neuronal Circuits at the Spinal Cord Level -- Aspects of Exercise Physiology -- Types of Muscle Fiber -- Overview of Muscular Metabolism -- Anaerobic Alactacid Energy Production.

Activation of Phosphofructokinase -- Activation of Glycogen Breakdown -- Production of Lactate -- Aerobic Metabolism -- Fat or Carbohydrates? -- Warm-Up -- Thermal Effects -- Blood Flow -- Excitability -- Cooling Instead of Warm-Up -- Fatigue -- Acidosis -- ATP Resynthesis -- Phosphate Effects -- Excitability -- Glycogen Deficiency -- Free Radicals -- Temperature -- Central Fatigue -- Recovery -- Training Adaptations -- Signal Chains -- 3 Molecular and Cell Biology of Muscle Regeneration -- Muscle Injury and Regeneration -- Importance of Various Nutrient Additives for Muscle Activity -- Amino Acids -- Essential Amino Acids -- Amino Acid Demand in Athletes -- Metabolic Disturbance -- pH Values -- Creatine Kinase, Myoglobin, Uric Acid -- Prevention and Therapy -- Antioxidants -- Function -- Intake -- Importance of Antioxidants in Athletic Activity -- Minerals -- Function in Muscle -- Disturbances of Muscle Homeostasis -- Trace Elements -- Function -- Deficiencies -- Intake -- Importance of Trace Elements in Athletic Activity -- Vitamin D -- Metabolism and Regulation -- Intake -- Importance of Vitamin D in Athletic Activity -- Conclusions -- 4 Muscle Healing: Physiology and Adverse Factors -- Functional and Structural Alterations in Muscle Tissue -- Functional Muscle Disorders -- Minor Partial Muscle Tears -- Moderate Partial Muscle Tear/ (Sub)Total Muscle Tear -- Mechanisms of Muscle Damage -- Initial Damage Phase -- Cellular Damage Mechanisms -- Extracellular Damage Mechanisms -- Dependence of Damage on Contraction and Fiber Types -- Impaired Neuromuscular Regulation -- Secondary Phase of Injury -- Regenerative Mechanisms and Their Sequence -- Destruction Phase -- Migration of Macrophages -- Migration of Neutrophils -- Repair Phase -- Muscle Fiber Regeneration -- Formation of Extracellular Matrix -- Neovascularization -- Reinnervation.

Laboratory Markers for Diagnosis and Healing -- Factors Influencing Healing -- Nutrition -- Antioxidants -- Carbohydrates and Proteins -- Carbohydrates -- Protein -- Age -- Exercise -- Approaches in Various Degrees of Muscle Injury -- Effects of Exercise -- Drug-Based Therapy -- Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs -- Glucocorticoids -- New Treatment Approaches -- Physical Measures -- Cryotherapy -- Compression -- Massage -- Ultrasound and Electrotherapy -- 5 Epidemiology of Muscle Injuries in Soccer -- Consensus of Study Design -- Material -- Method -- Definition: Injury -- Definition: Injury Severity -- Definition: Recurrent Injury -- Results -- Localization of Muscle Injuries in Soccer Players -- Injury Incidence -- Injury Risk -- Muscle Injuries and Age -- Variation in Injury Risk during Matches -- Injuries Due to Contact Situations and Foul Play -- Injury Severity -- Recurrent Injuries -- Examination Procedures: MRI and Ultrasound -- Hamstring Injuries -- Quadriceps Injuries -- Evaluation of Data -- 6 Terminology, Classification, Patient History, and Clinical Examination -- Why a New Classification? -- Short Review of the Current Literature -- Terminology of Muscle Injuries -- Classification of Muscle Injuries -- Fundamentals -- Current Classification Systems -- Consensus Conference on Muscle Terminology and Development of a New Comprehensive Classification System -- Terminology -- New Classification System -- Type 1 and 2: Functional Muscle Disorders -- Type 1: Overexertion-Related Muscle Disorder -- Type 2: Neuromuscular Muscle Disorder -- Types 3 and 4: Structural Muscle Injuries -- Type 3: Partial Muscle Tears -- Type 4: Subtotal/Complete Muscle Tear or Tendinous Avulsion -- Contusion Injuries -- Patient History -- Examination of Muscle Injuries -- Examination Techniques -- Palpation -- Ultrasound Diagnosis.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) -- Laboratory Diagnosis -- Typical Findings on Examination -- Type 1a: Fatigue-Induced Muscle Disorder -- Type 1b: Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) -- Type 2a: Spine-Related Neuromuscular Muscle Disorder -- Type 2b: Muscle-Related Neuromuscular Muscle Disorder -- Type 3a: Minor Partial Muscle Tear (Intrafascicular/Bundle Tear) -- Type 3b: Moderate Partial Muscle Tear (Interfascicular/Bundle Tear) and Type 4: Subtotal/Complete Muscle Tear or Tendinous Avulsion -- Other Muscle Injuries and Causes of Muscle Symptoms -- Functional Compartment Syndrome -- Apophyseal Avulsion -- Other Conditions -- Complications -- Post-Stress Muscle Imbalance -- Recurrence -- Seroma and Cyst -- Fibrosis/Scarring -- Traumatic Compartment Syndrome -- Myositis Ossificans and Heterotopic Ossification -- Muscle Hernia -- 7 Ultrasonography -- Introduction -- Relevant Physical Phenomena and Artifacts -- Absorption and Attenuation -- Reflection and Reflection Artifact -- Scatter -- Acoustic Shadow -- Acoustic Enhancement -- Reverberations -- Mirror-Image Artifact -- Ultrasonographic Examination of Skeletal Muscle -- Ultrasonography of Normal Muscle Tissue/Sonoanatomy -- Factors that Affect Imaging -- Examination Technique -- Ultrasonographic Examination of the Lower Limbs -- Ultrasonography of Pathological Conditions -- Fatigue-Induced Painful Muscle Disorder (Type 1a Lesion) -- Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (Type 1b Lesion) -- Spine-Related Neuromuscular Muscle Disorder (Type 2a Lesion) -- Muscle-Related Neuromuscular Muscle Disorder (Type 2b Lesion) -- Minor Partial Muscle Tear (Type 3a Lesion) -- Moderate Partial Muscle Tear (Type 3b Lesion) -- Subtotal or Complete Muscle Tear/ Tendinous Avulsion -- Contusion -- Ultrasonography of Complications -- Seroma, Cyst -- Fibrosis, Scar -- Myositis Ossificans -- Heterotopic Ossification.

Compartment Syndrome.

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