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Exploring the Last Continent : An Introduction to Antarctica.

By: Contributor(s): Material type: TextTextPublisher: Cham : Springer International Publishing AG, 2015Copyright date: ©2015Edition: 1st edDescription: 1 online resource (588 pages)Content type:
  • text
Media type:
  • computer
Carrier type:
  • online resource
ISBN:
  • 9783319189475
Subject(s): Genre/Form: Additional physical formats: Print version:: Exploring the Last ContinentDDC classification:
  • 577.58609989
LOC classification:
  • GB3-5030
Online resources:
Contents:
Intro -- Acknowledgements -- Contents -- Chapter 1: Exploring the Last Continent -- References -- Part I: Physical Sciences -- Chapter 2: A Continent Under Ice -- 2.1 Deciphering the Past -- 2.2 Antarctica´s Geological Features -- Box 2.1: Subglacial Gamburtsev Mountains -- 2.3 Antarctica´s Tectonic Environment -- Box 2.2: The Inner Earth -- 2.3.1 Seafloor Spreading: The Southern Ocean -- 2.3.2 Subduction: The Impact on South America -- 2.3.3 Subduction and Formation of a Back Arc Basin: The Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland Islands and Bransfield Strait -- Box 2.3: Deception Island -- 2.3.4 Continental Rifting and Volcanic Activity: The West Antarctic Rift System -- Box 2.4: Mount Erebus -- Box 2.5: Marie Byrd Land Volcanic Province -- 2.4 The Transantarctic Mountains -- 2.5 Ross Sea Rift Basins -- 2.6 Consequences of the West Antarctic Rift System -- 2.7 McMurdo Dry Valleys -- 2.8 Antarctica and Extra-Terrestrial Geology -- 2.9 Rocks from Outer Space -- References -- Chapter 3: A Long Journey South -- 3.1 Reading Rocks -- Box 3.1: Sedimentary Rocks (Fig.3.1) -- Box 3.2: Igneous Rocks (Fig.3.2) -- Box 3.3: Metamorphic Rocks (Fig.3.3) -- 3.2 Antarctica Within Ancient Supercontinents -- 3.2.1 Rodinia -- 3.2.2 Gondwana -- 3.2.3 An Active Tectonic Environment -- 3.3 Geography and Biology of Gondwana -- 3.3.1 Rivers, Shallow Seas and Fishes -- 3.3.2 A Temporary Polar Landscape -- 3.3.3 Swamps, Coal and Conifers -- 3.4 Mass Extinction, Renewed Evolution -- 3.5 Breakup of Gondwana and Isolation of Antarctica -- 3.5.1 Ferrar Large Igneous Province -- 3.5.2 Stages of Gondwana Breakup -- 3.5.3 The Pacific Ocean and the Antarctic Peninsula -- 3.5.4 The Cooling of Antarctica -- 3.5.5 Rotated Microplates and East Antarctica -- 3.5.6 Rotated Microplates and West Antarctica -- 3.6 Consequences of Antarctica´s Gondwanan Heritage -- References.
Chapter 4: Looking Back to the Future -- 4.1 Modelling the Past -- Box 4.1: Groundtruthing -- 4.2 Studying Palaeoclimate: The Proxy -- 4.2.1 Isotopes -- Box 4.2: Oxygen Isotopes -- 4.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks -- 4.2.3 Fossils -- Box 4.3: Fossil Case Study -- 4.2.4 Ice Layers -- 4.3 Past Antarctic Climate -- 4.3.1 Greenhouse Conditions -- 4.3.2 Greenhouse to Icehouse -- 4.3.3 Into the Icehouse -- Box 4.4: Milankovitch Cycles and Climate Change -- 4.3.4 Climate Change Over Last 800,000Years -- 4.4 Climate Models -- 4.4.1 Ice Sheet Behaviour -- 4.4.2 Modelling the Future -- References -- Chapter 5: An Ice-Bound Continent -- 5.1 Ice in Motion -- 5.2 Antarctic Ice Sheets -- 5.2.1 East Antarctic Ice Sheet -- 5.2.2 West Antarctic Ice Sheet -- Box 5.1: West Antarctic Ice Sheet Disintegration -- 5.2.3 Ice Caps -- 5.2.4 Ice Sheet Mass Balance -- Box 5.2: ICESat and Cryosat -- 5.3 Snow Accumulation -- 5.4 Ice Formation -- Box 5.3: Why Is Ice Blue? -- 5.5 Ice Cores -- Box 5.4: The EPICA/Dome C Ice Core -- Box 5.5: Roosevelt Island Ice Core -- 5.5.1 Dating Ice Cores -- 5.5.2 Chemistry and Dust Measurements in Ice Cores -- 5.5.3 Greenhouse Gases -- 5.6 Ice Streams and Glaciers -- 5.6.1 Ice Flow -- 5.6.2 Ice Streams -- 5.6.3 Glaciers -- 5.7 Subglacial Hydrology -- Box 5.6: Lake Vostok -- 5.8 Ice Shelves -- 5.9 Icebergs -- Box 5.7: Antarctic Iceberg Off the New Zealand Coast -- 5.10 Sea Ice -- Box 5.8: Types of Sea Ice -- 5.11 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6: Weather and Climate -- 6.1 Continent of Extremes -- Box 6.1: Automatic Weather Stations (AWSs) -- 6.2 General Circulation of the Atmosphere -- Box 6.2: Ascending and Descending Air -- 6.3 The Coldest Continent -- 6.3.1 Radiation -- Box 6.3: Heat Transfer and the Greenhouse Effect -- 6.3.2 The Surface Energy Balance -- 6.3.3 Turbulent Transfer -- Box 6.4: Latent Heat and Sensible Heat.
Box 6.5: Atmospheric Stability, Clouds and Temperature Inversions -- 6.3.4 Conduction -- 6.3.5 Effects of Elevation -- 6.3.6 Annual Temperature Regime -- 6.3.7 Distribution of Temperature Across Antarctica -- 6.4 The Windiest Continent -- 6.4.1 Surface Winds in Antarctica -- 6.4.2 Scales of Atmospheric Motion -- Box 6.6: Weather and Logistical Operations at McMurdo Station and Scott Base -- 6.4.3 Katabatic Winds -- 6.4.4 Anabatic Winds and Sea Breezes -- 6.4.5 Barrier Winds -- 6.5 The Driest Continent -- 6.5.1 Precipitation -- 6.5.2 Glaciological and Satellite Methods -- 6.5.3 Meteorological Method -- 6.5.4 Distribution of Surface Accumulation -- 6.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7: The Southern Ocean -- 7.1 Water Transport in the Southern Ocean -- 7.1.1 Drivers of Ocean Currents -- 7.1.1.1 Wind -- Box 7.1: Coriolis Force -- 7.1.1.2 Density Gradients -- 7.1.1.3 Temperature and Salinity -- 7.1.1.4 Pressure Gradients -- 7.1.2 Water Masses and Fronts -- Box 7.2: Water Masses in the Southern Ocean -- Box 7.3: Measuring the Properties of the Southern Ocean -- Box 7.4: Fronts in the Southern Ocean -- 7.1.3 Vertical Circulation and Formation of Bottom Water -- 7.1.4 Currents -- 7.2 Global Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction -- 7.2.1 Heat Transfer -- 7.2.2 Gas Transfer -- 7.2.3 Global Implications -- 7.3 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8: From Ice to Space -- 8.1 Introduction to the Antarctic Atmosphere -- 8.2 Physical Structure and Characteristics of the Atmosphere -- Box 8.1: Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere -- 8.2.1 The Troposphere -- 8.2.2 The Stratosphere -- 8.2.3 The Mesosphere and Thermosphere -- Box 8.2: The Aurora -- 8.3 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, Past and Present -- 8.3.1 Direct Measurements of Carbon Dioxide in the Air -- 8.3.2 Connecting Atmospheric with Ice-Core Data -- 8.3.3 Carbon Dioxide Concentrations in Deep Ice Cores.
8.3.4 Relevance of Ice-Core Data -- 8.4 The Antarctic Stratospheric Ozone Hole -- Box 8.3: Stratospheric Ozone -- 8.4.1 Halogens in the Stratosphere -- Box 8.4: Discovery of Antarctic Stratospheric Ozone Hole -- 8.4.2 Halogen Reservoir Gases -- 8.4.3 The Polar Vortex and Polar Stratospheric Clouds -- Box 8.5: Polar Stratospheric Clouds -- 8.4.4 Chemical Reactions in the Polar Vortex -- 8.4.5 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion -- 8.4.6 The Montreal Protocol -- 8.4.7 Linkages Between Climate and Stratospheric Ozone -- 8.5 Chemical Phenomena in the Antarctic Troposphere -- 8.5.1 Measurement of Trace Gases in Antarctica -- 8.5.2 Surface Ozone and Ozone Depletion Events -- 8.5.3 Impact of Bromine in the Antarctic Troposphere -- 8.6 Connectivity of Atmospheric Processes -- Bibliography -- Part II: Life Sciences -- Chapter 9: Remote Ocean Outposts -- 9.1 Sovereignty -- 9.2 Limits to Biodiversity -- 9.2.1 Isolation -- 9.2.2 Cool Climate -- 9.2.3 Glacial History -- 9.2.4 Size -- 9.3 Land Birds -- 9.4 Land Mammals -- 9.5 Reptiles and Amphibians -- 9.6 Seabirds -- 9.6.1 Procellariiformes (Tube-Noses) -- 9.6.2 Penguins -- 9.7 Marine Mammals -- 9.8 Introduced Mammals -- 9.9 Biosecurity and the Management of Invasive Species -- References -- Chapter 10: Life on Land -- 10.1 Diversity of Life -- 10.2 Life in Aquatic Habitats -- 10.2.1 Streams and Rivers -- 10.2.1.1 Irrigated Rock Surfaces -- 10.2.1.2 Ice Walls of Glaciers -- 10.2.1.3 Larger Streams and Rivers -- 10.2.2 Lakes -- 10.2.2.1 Lakes in Maritime Antarctica -- 10.2.2.2 Diverse Lakes of the Vestfold Hills -- 10.2.2.3 Permanently Ice-Covered Lakes of McMurdo Dry Valleys -- Box 10.1: Lake Vanda, a Stratified Lake -- 10.2.2.4 Permanently Ice-Covered Lakes Associated with Nunataks -- 10.2.2.5 Epishelf Lakes -- 10.2.2.6 Subglacial Lakes -- 10.2.2.7 Lake Sediments as Archives of Environmental Change -- 10.2.3 Ponds.
10.2.3.1 Ponds on Ice-Free Ground -- 10.2.3.2 Ponds on Ice Surfaces -- 10.3 Future Research -- References -- General Books and Articles -- Chapter 11: Life on Land -- 11.1 Flowering Plants -- 11.1.1 The Most Highly Developed Antarctic Soils -- 11.2 Mosses and Liverworts -- 11.2.1 Life Among Moss Plants -- 11.3 Lichens -- 11.3.1 Photosynthesis and Growth -- 11.4 Microbes in Soil -- 11.4.1 Microbial Life in Moist and Wet Soils -- 11.4.2 Microbial Life in Dry Soils -- 11.4.3 Life on Geothermal Ground -- 11.5 Microbes Associated with Rocks and Stones -- 11.5.1 Life Below Stones: Hypolithic Communities -- 11.5.2 Life Within Rocks: Endolithic Communities -- 11.6 Microbes in Snow and Ice -- 11.6.1 Snow Algae -- 11.6.2 The Continental Ice Sheet -- 11.7 Life in Subglacial Wetlands -- 11.8 Future Study of Terrestrial Ecosystems -- References -- General Books and Articles -- Chapter 12: Life Beyond the Ice -- 12.1 Primary Production -- 12.2 Zooplankton and the Key Role of Antarctic Krill -- Box 12.1: Top Predators and Antarctic Krill -- Box 12.2: Antarctic Krill Stages (Fig.12.3) -- 12.3 Cephalopods -- Box 12.3: The Colossal Squid Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni -- 12.4 Fish -- 12.5 Top Predators -- 12.6 Benthic Food Web -- 12.6.1 The Continental Shelf -- 12.6.2 The Deep Sea -- 12.7 Pelagic Food Web -- Box 12.4: Nitrate-Based Production -- 12.8 Effects on Antarctic Marine Ecosystems -- 12.8.1 Climate Change -- 12.8.2 Benthic Species -- 12.8.3 Pelagic Species -- 12.8.4 Cyclical Phenomena -- Box 12.5: Penguins Affected by Ice Extent -- 12.9 Conclusions -- References -- Further Reading on Antarctic Benthic Ecosystem -- Further Reading on Antarctic Pelagic Ecosystem -- Further Reading on Responses to Climate Change -- Chapter 13: Antarctic Megafauna -- 13.1 Introduction -- Box 13.1: Masters of the Fast Ice (Fig.13.2) -- 13.2 Overview of Antarctic Megafauna.
13.2.1 Birds (Aves).
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Intro -- Acknowledgements -- Contents -- Chapter 1: Exploring the Last Continent -- References -- Part I: Physical Sciences -- Chapter 2: A Continent Under Ice -- 2.1 Deciphering the Past -- 2.2 Antarctica´s Geological Features -- Box 2.1: Subglacial Gamburtsev Mountains -- 2.3 Antarctica´s Tectonic Environment -- Box 2.2: The Inner Earth -- 2.3.1 Seafloor Spreading: The Southern Ocean -- 2.3.2 Subduction: The Impact on South America -- 2.3.3 Subduction and Formation of a Back Arc Basin: The Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland Islands and Bransfield Strait -- Box 2.3: Deception Island -- 2.3.4 Continental Rifting and Volcanic Activity: The West Antarctic Rift System -- Box 2.4: Mount Erebus -- Box 2.5: Marie Byrd Land Volcanic Province -- 2.4 The Transantarctic Mountains -- 2.5 Ross Sea Rift Basins -- 2.6 Consequences of the West Antarctic Rift System -- 2.7 McMurdo Dry Valleys -- 2.8 Antarctica and Extra-Terrestrial Geology -- 2.9 Rocks from Outer Space -- References -- Chapter 3: A Long Journey South -- 3.1 Reading Rocks -- Box 3.1: Sedimentary Rocks (Fig.3.1) -- Box 3.2: Igneous Rocks (Fig.3.2) -- Box 3.3: Metamorphic Rocks (Fig.3.3) -- 3.2 Antarctica Within Ancient Supercontinents -- 3.2.1 Rodinia -- 3.2.2 Gondwana -- 3.2.3 An Active Tectonic Environment -- 3.3 Geography and Biology of Gondwana -- 3.3.1 Rivers, Shallow Seas and Fishes -- 3.3.2 A Temporary Polar Landscape -- 3.3.3 Swamps, Coal and Conifers -- 3.4 Mass Extinction, Renewed Evolution -- 3.5 Breakup of Gondwana and Isolation of Antarctica -- 3.5.1 Ferrar Large Igneous Province -- 3.5.2 Stages of Gondwana Breakup -- 3.5.3 The Pacific Ocean and the Antarctic Peninsula -- 3.5.4 The Cooling of Antarctica -- 3.5.5 Rotated Microplates and East Antarctica -- 3.5.6 Rotated Microplates and West Antarctica -- 3.6 Consequences of Antarctica´s Gondwanan Heritage -- References.

Chapter 4: Looking Back to the Future -- 4.1 Modelling the Past -- Box 4.1: Groundtruthing -- 4.2 Studying Palaeoclimate: The Proxy -- 4.2.1 Isotopes -- Box 4.2: Oxygen Isotopes -- 4.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks -- 4.2.3 Fossils -- Box 4.3: Fossil Case Study -- 4.2.4 Ice Layers -- 4.3 Past Antarctic Climate -- 4.3.1 Greenhouse Conditions -- 4.3.2 Greenhouse to Icehouse -- 4.3.3 Into the Icehouse -- Box 4.4: Milankovitch Cycles and Climate Change -- 4.3.4 Climate Change Over Last 800,000Years -- 4.4 Climate Models -- 4.4.1 Ice Sheet Behaviour -- 4.4.2 Modelling the Future -- References -- Chapter 5: An Ice-Bound Continent -- 5.1 Ice in Motion -- 5.2 Antarctic Ice Sheets -- 5.2.1 East Antarctic Ice Sheet -- 5.2.2 West Antarctic Ice Sheet -- Box 5.1: West Antarctic Ice Sheet Disintegration -- 5.2.3 Ice Caps -- 5.2.4 Ice Sheet Mass Balance -- Box 5.2: ICESat and Cryosat -- 5.3 Snow Accumulation -- 5.4 Ice Formation -- Box 5.3: Why Is Ice Blue? -- 5.5 Ice Cores -- Box 5.4: The EPICA/Dome C Ice Core -- Box 5.5: Roosevelt Island Ice Core -- 5.5.1 Dating Ice Cores -- 5.5.2 Chemistry and Dust Measurements in Ice Cores -- 5.5.3 Greenhouse Gases -- 5.6 Ice Streams and Glaciers -- 5.6.1 Ice Flow -- 5.6.2 Ice Streams -- 5.6.3 Glaciers -- 5.7 Subglacial Hydrology -- Box 5.6: Lake Vostok -- 5.8 Ice Shelves -- 5.9 Icebergs -- Box 5.7: Antarctic Iceberg Off the New Zealand Coast -- 5.10 Sea Ice -- Box 5.8: Types of Sea Ice -- 5.11 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6: Weather and Climate -- 6.1 Continent of Extremes -- Box 6.1: Automatic Weather Stations (AWSs) -- 6.2 General Circulation of the Atmosphere -- Box 6.2: Ascending and Descending Air -- 6.3 The Coldest Continent -- 6.3.1 Radiation -- Box 6.3: Heat Transfer and the Greenhouse Effect -- 6.3.2 The Surface Energy Balance -- 6.3.3 Turbulent Transfer -- Box 6.4: Latent Heat and Sensible Heat.

Box 6.5: Atmospheric Stability, Clouds and Temperature Inversions -- 6.3.4 Conduction -- 6.3.5 Effects of Elevation -- 6.3.6 Annual Temperature Regime -- 6.3.7 Distribution of Temperature Across Antarctica -- 6.4 The Windiest Continent -- 6.4.1 Surface Winds in Antarctica -- 6.4.2 Scales of Atmospheric Motion -- Box 6.6: Weather and Logistical Operations at McMurdo Station and Scott Base -- 6.4.3 Katabatic Winds -- 6.4.4 Anabatic Winds and Sea Breezes -- 6.4.5 Barrier Winds -- 6.5 The Driest Continent -- 6.5.1 Precipitation -- 6.5.2 Glaciological and Satellite Methods -- 6.5.3 Meteorological Method -- 6.5.4 Distribution of Surface Accumulation -- 6.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7: The Southern Ocean -- 7.1 Water Transport in the Southern Ocean -- 7.1.1 Drivers of Ocean Currents -- 7.1.1.1 Wind -- Box 7.1: Coriolis Force -- 7.1.1.2 Density Gradients -- 7.1.1.3 Temperature and Salinity -- 7.1.1.4 Pressure Gradients -- 7.1.2 Water Masses and Fronts -- Box 7.2: Water Masses in the Southern Ocean -- Box 7.3: Measuring the Properties of the Southern Ocean -- Box 7.4: Fronts in the Southern Ocean -- 7.1.3 Vertical Circulation and Formation of Bottom Water -- 7.1.4 Currents -- 7.2 Global Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction -- 7.2.1 Heat Transfer -- 7.2.2 Gas Transfer -- 7.2.3 Global Implications -- 7.3 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8: From Ice to Space -- 8.1 Introduction to the Antarctic Atmosphere -- 8.2 Physical Structure and Characteristics of the Atmosphere -- Box 8.1: Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere -- 8.2.1 The Troposphere -- 8.2.2 The Stratosphere -- 8.2.3 The Mesosphere and Thermosphere -- Box 8.2: The Aurora -- 8.3 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, Past and Present -- 8.3.1 Direct Measurements of Carbon Dioxide in the Air -- 8.3.2 Connecting Atmospheric with Ice-Core Data -- 8.3.3 Carbon Dioxide Concentrations in Deep Ice Cores.

8.3.4 Relevance of Ice-Core Data -- 8.4 The Antarctic Stratospheric Ozone Hole -- Box 8.3: Stratospheric Ozone -- 8.4.1 Halogens in the Stratosphere -- Box 8.4: Discovery of Antarctic Stratospheric Ozone Hole -- 8.4.2 Halogen Reservoir Gases -- 8.4.3 The Polar Vortex and Polar Stratospheric Clouds -- Box 8.5: Polar Stratospheric Clouds -- 8.4.4 Chemical Reactions in the Polar Vortex -- 8.4.5 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion -- 8.4.6 The Montreal Protocol -- 8.4.7 Linkages Between Climate and Stratospheric Ozone -- 8.5 Chemical Phenomena in the Antarctic Troposphere -- 8.5.1 Measurement of Trace Gases in Antarctica -- 8.5.2 Surface Ozone and Ozone Depletion Events -- 8.5.3 Impact of Bromine in the Antarctic Troposphere -- 8.6 Connectivity of Atmospheric Processes -- Bibliography -- Part II: Life Sciences -- Chapter 9: Remote Ocean Outposts -- 9.1 Sovereignty -- 9.2 Limits to Biodiversity -- 9.2.1 Isolation -- 9.2.2 Cool Climate -- 9.2.3 Glacial History -- 9.2.4 Size -- 9.3 Land Birds -- 9.4 Land Mammals -- 9.5 Reptiles and Amphibians -- 9.6 Seabirds -- 9.6.1 Procellariiformes (Tube-Noses) -- 9.6.2 Penguins -- 9.7 Marine Mammals -- 9.8 Introduced Mammals -- 9.9 Biosecurity and the Management of Invasive Species -- References -- Chapter 10: Life on Land -- 10.1 Diversity of Life -- 10.2 Life in Aquatic Habitats -- 10.2.1 Streams and Rivers -- 10.2.1.1 Irrigated Rock Surfaces -- 10.2.1.2 Ice Walls of Glaciers -- 10.2.1.3 Larger Streams and Rivers -- 10.2.2 Lakes -- 10.2.2.1 Lakes in Maritime Antarctica -- 10.2.2.2 Diverse Lakes of the Vestfold Hills -- 10.2.2.3 Permanently Ice-Covered Lakes of McMurdo Dry Valleys -- Box 10.1: Lake Vanda, a Stratified Lake -- 10.2.2.4 Permanently Ice-Covered Lakes Associated with Nunataks -- 10.2.2.5 Epishelf Lakes -- 10.2.2.6 Subglacial Lakes -- 10.2.2.7 Lake Sediments as Archives of Environmental Change -- 10.2.3 Ponds.

10.2.3.1 Ponds on Ice-Free Ground -- 10.2.3.2 Ponds on Ice Surfaces -- 10.3 Future Research -- References -- General Books and Articles -- Chapter 11: Life on Land -- 11.1 Flowering Plants -- 11.1.1 The Most Highly Developed Antarctic Soils -- 11.2 Mosses and Liverworts -- 11.2.1 Life Among Moss Plants -- 11.3 Lichens -- 11.3.1 Photosynthesis and Growth -- 11.4 Microbes in Soil -- 11.4.1 Microbial Life in Moist and Wet Soils -- 11.4.2 Microbial Life in Dry Soils -- 11.4.3 Life on Geothermal Ground -- 11.5 Microbes Associated with Rocks and Stones -- 11.5.1 Life Below Stones: Hypolithic Communities -- 11.5.2 Life Within Rocks: Endolithic Communities -- 11.6 Microbes in Snow and Ice -- 11.6.1 Snow Algae -- 11.6.2 The Continental Ice Sheet -- 11.7 Life in Subglacial Wetlands -- 11.8 Future Study of Terrestrial Ecosystems -- References -- General Books and Articles -- Chapter 12: Life Beyond the Ice -- 12.1 Primary Production -- 12.2 Zooplankton and the Key Role of Antarctic Krill -- Box 12.1: Top Predators and Antarctic Krill -- Box 12.2: Antarctic Krill Stages (Fig.12.3) -- 12.3 Cephalopods -- Box 12.3: The Colossal Squid Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni -- 12.4 Fish -- 12.5 Top Predators -- 12.6 Benthic Food Web -- 12.6.1 The Continental Shelf -- 12.6.2 The Deep Sea -- 12.7 Pelagic Food Web -- Box 12.4: Nitrate-Based Production -- 12.8 Effects on Antarctic Marine Ecosystems -- 12.8.1 Climate Change -- 12.8.2 Benthic Species -- 12.8.3 Pelagic Species -- 12.8.4 Cyclical Phenomena -- Box 12.5: Penguins Affected by Ice Extent -- 12.9 Conclusions -- References -- Further Reading on Antarctic Benthic Ecosystem -- Further Reading on Antarctic Pelagic Ecosystem -- Further Reading on Responses to Climate Change -- Chapter 13: Antarctic Megafauna -- 13.1 Introduction -- Box 13.1: Masters of the Fast Ice (Fig.13.2) -- 13.2 Overview of Antarctic Megafauna.

13.2.1 Birds (Aves).

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