TY  - BOOK
AU  - Group,World Bank
AU  - Organization,World Trade
TI  - Women and Trade: The Role of Trade in Promoting Gender Equality
SN  - 9781464815560
AV  - HF1379 .W664 2020 
U1  - 306.3 
PY  - 2020///
CY  - Washington, D. C.
PB  - World Bank Publications
KW  - International trade-Sex differences
KW  - Women-Economic conditions
KW  - Women in development
KW  - Electronic books
N1  - Cover -- Title -- Copyright -- Contents -- Foreword -- Acknowledgments -- Abbreviations -- Overview -- Trade improves the lives of women -- The changing nature of trade creates new opportunities for women -- Better policies can help women overcome the challenges of trade and maximize its benefits -- Collective efforts to promote trade and gender equality -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 1 The impact of trade on women in their different roles -- Key messages -- Introduction -- How trade affects women workers -- How trade affects women producers and business owners -- How trade affects women consumers and decision makers -- Annex 1A -- Annex 1B -- Annex 1C -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 2 How constraints and opportunities shape women's roles in trade -- Key messages -- Introduction -- Barriers reducing women's share in the gains from trade -- New opportunities for women to benefit from trade -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 3 Policy responses to promote women's benefits from trade -- Key messages -- Priorities to increase market access for women -- Priorities to increase women's capacity to engage in international trade -- Mitigating the risks from trade faced by women -- Collective efforts to promote women's economic empowerment -- Steps to further inclusiveness -- Notes -- References -- Boxes -- Box O.1 Early evidence on the impact of COVID-19 on trade and women -- Box 1.1 Key terms used in this report -- Box 1.2 Procurement policy in support of women's equal pay -- Box 1.3 Reducing fertilizer logistics costs and the gender gap in agricultural productivity in Ethiopia -- Box 2.1 Women traders are likely to more affected by conflict and violence -- Box 2.2 Merchandise produced by women faces higher tariffs -- Box 2.3 Pakistani women entrepreneurs face many challenges as a result of nontariff measures; Box 2.4 Women's geographical mobility is more limited than men's -- Box 2.5 Trade can benefit agricultural development and help close the gender productivity gap -- Box 2.6 COVID-19: How services disruption will affect women -- Box 2.7 Implications of COVID-19 for female workers in manufacturing global value chains -- Box 2.8 Female export jobs and earnings in Vietnam -- Box 2.9 Female employment and upgrading in the medical devices global value chain in Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic -- Box 2.10 Online electronic commerce platform offers women new business opportunities -- Box 2.11 Gender analysis of electronic commerce and online trading in South Asia and Southeast Asia -- Box 3.1 The beneficial effects of trade facilitation for women -- Box 3.2 East African Community's Gender Equality, Equity, and Development Bill -- Box 3.3 Increasing relevance of gender-related policies emerging from World Trade Organization Trade Policy Review reports -- Box 3.4 Women's economic empowerment in Aid for Trade -- Figures -- Figure O.1 Average female labor share is higher for manufacturing firms integrated into global trade -- Figure O.2 Women are less likely to be in informal jobs if they work in trade-integrated sectors -- Figure O.3 The current tariff structure benefits male-headed households in 78 percent of countries assessed -- Figure O.4 Countries that are more open to trade have higher levels of gender equality -- Figure O.5 Female employment has shifted into services, 1991 versus 2017 -- Figure O.6 GVC firms employ more women than non-GVC firms -- Figure 1.1 Trade openness and liberalization increased in the 1990s and 2000s -- Figure 1.2 Countries that are more open to trade have higher levels of gender equality, 2017 -- Figure 1.3 Gender inequality falls as countries specialize into more sophisticated GVCs; Figure 1.4 The female labor share increases as countries specialize into more sophisticated trade and GVCs -- Figure 1.5 As trade participation involves more sophisticated trade and GVCs, the male-to-female wage ratio declines -- Figure 1.6 The female employment-to-population ratio increased in most economies between 1991 and 2017 -- Figure 1.7 Women's employment is shifting into services and away from agriculture, 1991 versus 2017 -- Figure 1.8 Agriculture still accounts for much of female employment in certain regions, 1991 versus 2017 -- Figure 1.9 More tradable services have provided the strongest job growth for both genders, 1991 versus 2017 -- Figure 1.10 Women's presence in highskill roles has expanded, 1991 versus 2017 -- Figure 1.11 Low-income countries have very few women in high-skill jobs -- Figure 1.12 Service sector jobs require higher education levels for women and men -- Figure 1.13 Skilled agricultural and elementary occupations have the largest shares of women in low- and lower-middle-income countries -- Figure 1.14 Women are less likely to be in informal jobs if they work in trade-integrated sectors -- Figure 1.15 Informal employment remains at high levels in several regions -- Figure 1.16 Trading manufacturing firms in developing and emerging countries show a significantly higher female wage share than nontrading firms -- Figure 1.17 In developing countries, an increase in manufacturing exports is significantly linked to increases in the female wage share -- Figure 1.18 In developing and emerging countries, trading firms in manufacturing show a significantly higher female labor share than nontrading firms -- Figure 1.19 Average female labor share across developing and emerging countries is higher for manufacturing firms that export; Figure 1.20 Average female labor share in developing and emerging countries is higher for manufacturing firms integrated into global trade -- Figure 1.21 The female labor share premium in exporting firms is higher in low-technology manufacturing sectors -- Figure 1.22 In the manufacturing sector, trading firms managed by women have a higher female share of the workforce than nontrading firms -- Figure 1.23 The wage gap between female and male workers still exists -- Figure 1.24 Men tend to work longer hours than women, especially in low-income countries -- Figure 1.25 The wage gap is smaller for middle-income countries than for low-income countries -- Figure 1.26 Wage gaps between women and men decrease with higher levels of education -- Figure 1.27 Women's time spent at work relative to men increases with a higher level of education -- Figure 1.28 The negative relationship between the female labor share and the average wage rate is smaller for trading firms -- Figure 1.29 The share of female-owned firms and exporters increases with the level of specialization of countries into more sophisticated trade -- Figure 1.30 A low percentage of firms is female-owned and global -- Figure 1.31 More than 50 percent of female-owned businesses are concentrated in sectors with high barriers to crossborder trade, in both goods and services -- Figure 1.32 Majority-male-owned exporting firms perform better and are more digitally connected than female-owned exporting firms -- Figure B1.3.1 Farm managers' productivity distribution, by gender -- Figure 1.33 The current tariff structure benefits male-headed households in 78 percent of countries assessed -- Figure 1.34 Women spend much more time on childcare than men do across all countries -- Figure 2.1 Constraints affecting women in trade are diverse -- Figure 2.2 Sectors that employ more women face higher input tariffs; Figure 2.3 On average, women work in services sectors that are less tradeintensive -- Figure 2.4 On average, women face an export cost 13 percent higher than men's cost -- Figure 2.5 Customs procedures and regulations are more burdensome for small firms -- Figure B2.3.1 Pakistani women-led companies engage mainly in the textiles and food industries -- Figure B2.3.2 Pakistani export-related measures and conformity assessment procedures are the main impediments faced by women-led firms -- Figure 2.6 Women's upper-secondary completion rates are lower than men's in low-income and lower-middle-income countries -- Figure 2.7 Trade-intensive sectors employ more workers with STEM backgrounds -- Figure 2.8 The digital gender divide persists -- Figure 2.9 Laws affect women throughout their working lives -- Figure 2.10 With greater equality of opportunity, more women work, and they receive higher wages -- Figure 2.11 Women are less likely to hold leadership positions in business when they lack property rights -- Figure 2.12 Women spend considerably less time than men on paid work -- Figure B2.4.1 Women are more likely to migrate for social reasons, whereas men migrate for economic reasons -- Figure 2.13 The employment share of services has steadily increased, 1970-2010 -- Figure 2.14 Services contribute a growing share of value added to agricultural and manufacturing goods, 2011-16 -- Figure B2.6.1 Women's occupations require more face-to-face interactions than men's and offer less opportunity for remote work -- Figure B2.6.2 Women tend to be employed in services sectors that face larger trade disruption -- Figure 2.15 Female employment shares in manufacturing and agriculture are lower than in most services -- Figure 2.16 Women account for a large and growing share of doctors in OECD countries, 2000 versus 2015; Figure 2.17 Trade in services has been growing faster than trade in goods
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