Women and Trade : The Role of Trade in Promoting Gender Equality.

Cover -- Title -- Copyright -- Contents -- Foreword -- Acknowledgments -- Abbreviations -- Overview -- Trade improves the lives of women -- The changing nature of trade creates new opportunities for women -- Better policies can help women overcome the challenges of trade and maximize its benefits -- Collective efforts to promote trade and gender equality -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 1 The impact of trade on women in their different roles -- Key messages -- Introduction -- How trade affects women workers -- How trade affects women producers and business owners -- How trade affects women consumers and decision makers -- Annex 1A -- Annex 1B -- Annex 1C -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 2 How constraints and opportunities shape women's roles in trade -- Key messages -- Introduction -- Barriers reducing women's share in the gains from trade -- New opportunities for women to benefit from trade -- Notes -- References -- Chapter 3 Policy responses to promote women's benefits from trade -- Key messages -- Priorities to increase market access for women -- Priorities to increase women's capacity to engage in international trade -- Mitigating the risks from trade faced by women -- Collective efforts to promote women's economic empowerment -- Steps to further inclusiveness -- Notes -- References -- Boxes -- Box O.1 Early evidence on the impact of COVID-19 on trade and women -- Box 1.1 Key terms used in this report -- Box 1.2 Procurement policy in support of women's equal pay -- Box 1.3 Reducing fertilizer logistics costs and the gender gap in agricultural productivity in Ethiopia -- Box 2.1 Women traders are likely to more affected by conflict and violence -- Box 2.2 Merchandise produced by women faces higher tariffs -- Box 2.3 Pakistani women entrepreneurs face many challenges as a result of nontariff measures.

Box 2.4 Women's geographical mobility is more limited than men's -- Box 2.5 Trade can benefit agricultural development and help close the gender productivity gap -- Box 2.6 COVID-19: How services disruption will affect women -- Box 2.7 Implications of COVID-19 for female workers in manufacturing global value chains -- Box 2.8 Female export jobs and earnings in Vietnam -- Box 2.9 Female employment and upgrading in the medical devices global value chain in Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic -- Box 2.10 Online electronic commerce platform offers women new business opportunities -- Box 2.11 Gender analysis of electronic commerce and online trading in South Asia and Southeast Asia -- Box 3.1 The beneficial effects of trade facilitation for women -- Box 3.2 East African Community's Gender Equality, Equity, and Development Bill -- Box 3.3 Increasing relevance of gender-related policies emerging from World Trade Organization Trade Policy Review reports -- Box 3.4 Women's economic empowerment in Aid for Trade -- Figures -- Figure O.1 Average female labor share is higher for manufacturing firms integrated into global trade -- Figure O.2 Women are less likely to be in informal jobs if they work in trade-integrated sectors -- Figure O.3 The current tariff structure benefits male-headed households in 78 percent of countries assessed -- Figure O.4 Countries that are more open to trade have higher levels of gender equality -- Figure O.5 Female employment has shifted into services, 1991 versus 2017 -- Figure O.6 GVC firms employ more women than non-GVC firms -- Figure 1.1 Trade openness and liberalization increased in the 1990s and 2000s -- Figure 1.2 Countries that are more open to trade have higher levels of gender equality, 2017 -- Figure 1.3 Gender inequality falls as countries specialize into more sophisticated GVCs.

Figure 1.4 The female labor share increases as countries specialize into more sophisticated trade and GVCs -- Figure 1.5 As trade participation involves more sophisticated trade and GVCs, the male-to-female wage ratio declines -- Figure 1.6 The female employment-to-population ratio increased in most economies between 1991 and 2017 -- Figure 1.7 Women's employment is shifting into services and away from agriculture, 1991 versus 2017 -- Figure 1.8 Agriculture still accounts for much of female employment in certain regions, 1991 versus 2017 -- Figure 1.9 More tradable services have provided the strongest job growth for both genders, 1991 versus 2017 -- Figure 1.10 Women's presence in highskill roles has expanded, 1991 versus 2017 -- Figure 1.11 Low-income countries have very few women in high-skill jobs -- Figure 1.12 Service sector jobs require higher education levels for women and men -- Figure 1.13 Skilled agricultural and elementary occupations have the largest shares of women in low- and lower-middle-income countries -- Figure 1.14 Women are less likely to be in informal jobs if they work in trade-integrated sectors -- Figure 1.15 Informal employment remains at high levels in several regions -- Figure 1.16 Trading manufacturing firms in developing and emerging countries show a significantly higher female wage share than nontrading firms -- Figure 1.17 In developing countries, an increase in manufacturing exports is significantly linked to increases in the female wage share -- Figure 1.18 In developing and emerging countries, trading firms in manufacturing show a significantly higher female labor share than nontrading firms -- Figure 1.19 Average female labor share across developing and emerging countries is higher for manufacturing firms that export.

Figure 1.20 Average female labor share in developing and emerging countries is higher for manufacturing firms integrated into global trade -- Figure 1.21 The female labor share premium in exporting firms is higher in low-technology manufacturing sectors -- Figure 1.22 In the manufacturing sector, trading firms managed by women have a higher female share of the workforce than nontrading firms -- Figure 1.23 The wage gap between female and male workers still exists -- Figure 1.24 Men tend to work longer hours than women, especially in low-income countries -- Figure 1.25 The wage gap is smaller for middle-income countries than for low-income countries -- Figure 1.26 Wage gaps between women and men decrease with higher levels of education -- Figure 1.27 Women's time spent at work relative to men increases with a higher level of education -- Figure 1.28 The negative relationship between the female labor share and the average wage rate is smaller for trading firms -- Figure 1.29 The share of female-owned firms and exporters increases with the level of specialization of countries into more sophisticated trade -- Figure 1.30 A low percentage of firms is female-owned and global -- Figure 1.31 More than 50 percent of female-owned businesses are concentrated in sectors with high barriers to crossborder trade, in both goods and services -- Figure 1.32 Majority-male-owned exporting firms perform better and are more digitally connected than female-owned exporting firms -- Figure B1.3.1 Farm managers' productivity distribution, by gender -- Figure 1.33 The current tariff structure benefits male-headed households in 78 percent of countries assessed -- Figure 1.34 Women spend much more time on childcare than men do across all countries -- Figure 2.1 Constraints affecting women in trade are diverse -- Figure 2.2 Sectors that employ more women face higher input tariffs.

Figure 2.3 On average, women work in services sectors that are less tradeintensive -- Figure 2.4 On average, women face an export cost 13 percent higher than men's cost -- Figure 2.5 Customs procedures and regulations are more burdensome for small firms -- Figure B2.3.1 Pakistani women-led companies engage mainly in the textiles and food industries -- Figure B2.3.2 Pakistani export-related measures and conformity assessment procedures are the main impediments faced by women-led firms -- Figure 2.6 Women's upper-secondary completion rates are lower than men's in low-income and lower-middle-income countries -- Figure 2.7 Trade-intensive sectors employ more workers with STEM backgrounds -- Figure 2.8 The digital gender divide persists -- Figure 2.9 Laws affect women throughout their working lives -- Figure 2.10 With greater equality of opportunity, more women work, and they receive higher wages -- Figure 2.11 Women are less likely to hold leadership positions in business when they lack property rights -- Figure 2.12 Women spend considerably less time than men on paid work -- Figure B2.4.1 Women are more likely to migrate for social reasons, whereas men migrate for economic reasons -- Figure 2.13 The employment share of services has steadily increased, 1970-2010 -- Figure 2.14 Services contribute a growing share of value added to agricultural and manufacturing goods, 2011-16 -- Figure B2.6.1 Women's occupations require more face-to-face interactions than men's and offer less opportunity for remote work -- Figure B2.6.2 Women tend to be employed in services sectors that face larger trade disruption -- Figure 2.15 Female employment shares in manufacturing and agriculture are lower than in most services -- Figure 2.16 Women account for a large and growing share of doctors in OECD countries, 2000 versus 2015.

Figure 2.17 Trade in services has been growing faster than trade in goods.

Description based on publisher supplied metadata and other sources.

Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, Michigan : ProQuest Ebook Central, 2024. Available via World Wide Web. Access may be limited to ProQuest Ebook Central affiliated libraries.